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OBJECTIVE: To identify longitudinal bidirectional associations between unique sleep trajectories and obesity and hypertension among Black, adolescent girls. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Longitudinal data were from a randomized controlled trial (2009–2013) implemented in schools serving low-income communities aimed at preventing obesity among adolescent girls (mean age = 12.2 y (SD ± 0.72). MEASURES: Nocturnal sleep data were extracted from accelerometers at T1 (enrollment, n = 470), T2 (6-month, n = 348), and T3 (18-month follow-up, n = 277); height and weight were measured at T1–T3; and systolic/diastolic blood pressure (SDBP) at T1 and T3 using an oscillometric monitor. Multilevel models examined longitudinal associations. Finite mixture models identified sleep trajectory groups. Structural equation models examined whether T1 chronic disease risk predicted sleep profiles, and conversely, if sleep trajectories predicted T3 chronic disease risk. Data were analyzed in 2021. RESULTS: For each additional hour of sleep and 1% increase in efficiency there was a 7% lower risk of overweight/obesity at T1 and 6% lower risk at T2, but not at T3. Four sleep trajectories emerged: Worsened, Irregular, Improved, and Regular, with no demographic or metabolic differences between the trajectories. Improved sleep trajectory predicted lower diastolic percentile at T3 (b = −8.81 [95% CI −16.23, −1.40]). CONCLUSIONS: Group-based trajectories of sleep duration and quality provide information on modifiable factors that can be targeted in interventions to evaluate their impact on reducing chronic diseases and addressing disparities. Additional research is needed on samples beyond those recruited in the context of an intervention study.

IntroductionChildren’s early development is affected by caregiving experiences, with lifelong health and well-being implications. Governments and civil societies need population-based measures to monitor children’s early development and ensure that children receive the care needed to thrive. To this end, the WHO developed the Global Scales for Early Development (GSED) to measure children’s early development up to 3 years of age. The GSED includes three measures for population and programmatic level measurement: (1) short form (SF) (caregiver report), (2) long form (LF) (direct administration) and (3) psychosocial form (PF) (caregiver report). The primary aim of this protocol is to validate the GSED SF and LF. Secondary aims are to create preliminary reference scores for the GSED SF and LF, validate an adaptive testing algorithm and assess the feasibility and preliminary validity of the GSED PF.Methods and analysisWe will conduct the validation in seven countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, Côte d’Ivoire, Pakistan, The Netherlands, People's Republic of China, United Republic of Tanzania), varying in geography, language, culture and income through a 1-year prospective design, combining cross-sectional and longitudinal methods with 1248 children per site, stratified by age and sex. The GSED generates an innovative common metric (Developmental Score: D-score) using the Rasch model and a Development for Age Z-score (DAZ). We will evaluate six psychometric properties of the GSED SF and LF: concurrent validity, predictive validity at 6 months, convergent and discriminant validity, and test–retest and inter-rater reliability. We will evaluate measurement invariance by comparing differential item functioning and differential test functioning across sites.Ethics and disseminationThis study has received ethical approval from the WHO (protocol GSED validation 004583 20.04.2020) and approval in each site. Study results will be disseminated through webinars and publications from WHO, international organisations, academic journals and conference proceedings.Registration detailsOpen Science Frameworkhttps://osf.io/on 19 November 2021 (DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/KX5T7; identifier: osf-registrations-kx5t7-v1).

Fostering the growth, development, health, and wellbeing of children is a global priority. The early childhood period presents a critical window to influence lifelong trajectories, however urgent multisectoral action is needed to ensure that families are adequately supported to nurture their children's growth and development. With a shared vision to give every child the best start in life, thus helping them reach their full developmental potential, we have formed the International Healthy Eating Active Living Matters (HEALing Matters) Alliance. Together, we form a global network of academics and practitioners working across child health and development, and who are dedicated to improving health equity for children and their families. Our goal is to ensure that all families are free from structural inequality and oppression and are empowered to nurture their children's growth and development through healthy eating and physical activity within the context of responsive emotional support, safety and security, and opportunities for early learning. To date, there have been disparate approaches to promoting these objectives across the health, community service, and education sectors. The crucial importance of our collective work is to bring these priorities for early childhood together through multisectoral interventions, and in so doing tackle head on siloed approaches. In this Policy paper, we draw upon extensive research and call for collective action to promote equity and foster positive developmental trajectories for all children. We call for the delivery of evidence-based programs, policies, and services that are co-designed to meet the needs of all children and families and address structural and systemic inequalities. Moving beyond the “what” is needed to foster the best start to life for all children, we provide recommendations of “how” we can do this. Such collective impact will facilitate intergenerational progression that builds human capital in future generations.

Objective:The objective was to examine risk and protective factors associated with pre- to early-pandemic changes in risk of household food insecurity (FI).Design:We re-enrolled families from two statewide studies (2017–2020) in an observational cohort (May–August 2020). Caregivers reported on risk of household FI, demographics, pandemic-related hardships, and participation in safety net programmes (e.g. Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) stimulus payment, school meals).Setting:Maryland, USA.Participants:Economically, geographically and racially/ethnically diverse families with preschool to adolescent-age children. Eligibility included reported receipt or expected receipt of the CARES stimulus payment or a pandemic-related economic hardship (n 496).Results:Prevalence of risk of FI was unchanged (pre-pandemic: 22 %, early-pandemic: 25 %, p = 0·27). Risk of early-pandemic FI was elevated for non-Hispanic Black (adjusted relative risk (aRR) = 2·1 (95 % CI 1·1, 4·0)) and Other families (aRR = 2·6 (1·3, 5·4)) and families earning ≤ 300 % federal poverty level. Among pre-pandemic food secure families, decreased income, job loss and reduced hours were associated with increased early-pandemic FI risk (aRR = 2·1 (1·2, 3·6) to 2·5 (1·5, 4·1)); CARES stimulus payment (aRR = 0·5 (0·3, 0·9)) and continued school meal participation (aRR = 0·2 (0·1, 0·9)) were associated with decreased risk. Among families at risk of FI pre-pandemic, safety net programme participation was not associated with early-pandemic FI risk.Conclusions:The CARES stimulus payment and continued school meal participation protected pre-pandemic food secure families from early-pandemic FI risk but did not protect families who were at risk of FI pre-pandemic. Mitigating pre-pandemic FI risk and providing stimulus payments and school meals may support children’s health and reduce disparities in response to pandemics.

Objective To evaluate demographic differences in parent website engagement in a child care–based wellness intervention. Design Parent-reported demographic characteristics and observed website engagement were averaged by child care centers participating in the web-based intervention arm of a cluster randomized controlled trial of wellness interventions. Setting and Participants Parents of preschoolers in 17 Maryland child care centers. Main Outcome Measures Website engagement: (1) webpage views, (2) average time on webpage, and (3) intervention activity completion. Intervention Parents received access to a website containing content on wellness-promoting topics (eg, parenting, nutrition, physical activity) and their child care center's activities. Analysis Cross-sectional differences in website engagement by demographic characteristics were assessed using ANOVA. Results Centers with a high proportion of parents who identified as other than non-Hispanic White and had less than a bachelor's degree had significantly fewer webpage views, and completed significantly fewer intervention activities compared with centers with parents who were predominantly non-Hispanic White and had more than a bachelor's degree. Conclusions and Implications Demographic differences in parents’ child care center website engagement represent disparities that could contribute to health inequities in parents’ access to wellness-promoting material. Future efforts could identify factors that eliminate demographic disparities in parent engagement in web-based interventions.

Undernutrition and a lack of learning opportunities can jeopardize long-term growth and development among infants in low- and middle-income countries. We conducted a 6-month 2 × 2 cluster-randomized trial to assess the effects of multiple micronutrient-fortified beverages and responsive caregiving interventions among infants 6–18 months in 72 community sectors in southwest Guatemala. We administered baseline and endline assessments of childhood development (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development) and socioemotional development (Brief Infant Toddler Socio-Emotional Assessment) and measured ferritin and hemoglobin on a subsample. The trial was analyzed using linear mixed models. At the baseline, the mean age (SD) was 13.0 (4.6) months, including 49% males, 32% who were stunted, 55% who were anemic, and 58% who were iron deficient. At the endline (n = 328/386, 85% retention), there was no synergistic effect on the fortified beverage and responsive caregiving intervention. Compared to the non-fortified beverage group, socioemotional development improved in the fortified beverage group. There were no intervention effects on other measures of child development, hemoglobin, or ferritin. In a setting with high rates of anemia and iron deficiency, a multiple micronutrient-fortified beverage improved infants’ socioemotional development.

Family child care homes (FCCHs) are a favored child care choice for parents of young children in the U.S. Most FCCH providers purchase and prepare foods for the children in their care. Although FCCH providers can receive monetary support from the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP), a federal subsidy program, to purchase nutritious foods, little is known about FCCH providers’ access to nutritious foods, especially among FCCH providers serving children from communities that have been historically disinvested and predominantly Black. This study aims to describe the food desert status of FCCHs in Baltimore City, Maryland, and examine the relationship between food desert status and the quality of foods and beverages purchased and provided to children. A proportionate stratified random sample of 91 FCCH providers by CACFP participation status consented. Geographic information system mapping (GIS) was used to determine the food desert status of each participating FCCH. Participants reported on their access to food and beverages through telephone-based surveys. Nearly three-quarters (66/91) of FCCHs were located in a food desert. FCCH providers working and living in a food desert had lower mean sum scores M (SD) for the quality of beverages provided than FCCH providers outside a food desert (2.53 ± 0.81 vs. 2.92 ± 0.70, p = 0.036, respectively). Although the significant difference in scores for beverages provided is small, FCCH providers working in food deserts may need support in providing healthy beverages to the children in their care. More research is needed to understand food purchases among FCCH providers working in neighborhoods situated in food deserts.

Optimal health and development from preconception to adulthood are crucial for human flourishing and the formation of human capital. The Nurturing Care Framework, as adapted to age 20 years, conceptualises the major influences during periods of development from preconception, through pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence that affect human capital. In addition to mortality in children younger than 5 years, stillbirths and deaths in 5-19-year-olds are important to consider. The global rate of mortality in individuals younger than 20 years has declined substantially since 2000, yet in 2019 an estimated 8·6 million deaths occurred between 28 weeks of gestation and 20 years of age, with more than half of deaths, including stillbirths, occurring before 28 days of age. The 1000 days from conception to 2 years of age are especially influential for human capital. The prevalence of low birthweight is high in sub-Saharan Africa and even higher in south Asia. Growth faltering, especially from birth to 2 years, occurs in most world regions, whereas overweight increases in many regions from the preprimary school period through adolescence. Analyses of cohort data show that growth trajectories in early years of life are strong determinants of nutritional outcomes in adulthood. The accrual of knowledge and skills is affected by health, nutrition, and home resources in early childhood and by educational opportunities in older children and adolescents. Linear growth in the first 2 years of life better predicts intelligence quotients in adults than increases in height in older children and adolescents. Learning-adjusted years of schooling range from about 4 years in sub-Saharan Africa to about 11 years in high-income countries. Human capital depends on children and adolescents surviving, thriving, and learning until adulthood.

Background Habits surrounding health behaviors (i.e., sleep, physical activity, diet) are developed in toddlerhood. Lack of consistent health habits may increase obesity risk among toddlers in low-income families. Purpose To compare the role of sleep onset consistency, physical activity and diet quality as mediators between household poverty and toddler weight. Methods Two hundred and seven toddlers (mean age = 20.2 months, 46% female, 68.1% Black) participating in an obesity prevention trial were assessed at three time points over 12 months. Using Actical accelerometers, we assessed sleep and physical activity at each time point for up to 1 week. We defined sleep onset consistency as the standard deviation of sleep onset across all days. We calculated the Healthy Eating Index-2015 from a 24-hr dietary recall. We used WHO standards to calculate BMI-for-age z-scores from toddlers’ weight/length, and calculated poverty ratio from parent-reported income and family size. Multilevel mediation models tested toddler sleep onset consistency, physical activity, and diet quality as mediators between household poverty and toddler BMI z-score. Results Toddlers from households with higher poverty ratios had more inconsistent sleep onset times. Toddlers with more inconsistent sleep onset times had higher BMI z-scores across all timepoints, even when accounting for physical activity and diet quality. Sleep onset consistency indirectly explained the association between household poverty and BMI z-score. Conclusions Inconsistent sleep schedules could help explain the association between poverty and BMI. Future research should examine strategies to support low-income families to develop and maintain routines as a mechanism to prevent obesity and reduce disparities. Trial registration number NCT02615158.

Recovery from nutritionally induced height deficits continues to garner attention. The current literature on catch-up growth, however, has 2 important limitations: wide-ranging definitions of catch-up growth are used, and it remains unclear whether children can recover from the broader consequences of undernutrition. We addressed these shortcomings by reviewing the literature on the criteria for catch-up in linear growth and on the potential to recover from undernutrition early in life in 3 domains: linear growth, developmental epigenetics, and child brain and neurocognitive development. Four criteria must be met to demonstrate catch-up growth in height: after a period in which a growth-inhibiting condition (criterion 1) causes a reduction in linear growth velocity (criterion 2), alleviation of the inhibiting condition (criterion 3) leads to higher-than-normal velocity (criterion 4). Accordingly, studies that are observational, do not use absolute height, or have no alleviation of an inhibiting condition cannot be used to establish catch-up growth. Adoption and foster care, which provide dramatic improvements in children's living conditions not typically attained in nutrition interventions, led to some (but incomplete) recovery in linear growth and brain and neurocognitive development. Maternal nutrition around the time of conception was shown to have long-term (potentially permanent) effects on DNA methylation in the offspring. Undernourishment early in life may thus have profound irreversible effects. Scientific, program, and policy efforts should focus on preventing maternal and child undernutrition rather than on correcting its consequences or attempting to prove they can be corrected.

Background: Family Child Care Homes (FCCHs) are the second-largest childcare option in the US. Given that young children are increasingly becoming overweight and obese, it is vital to understand the FCCH mealtime environment. There is much interest in examining the impact of the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP), a federal initiative to support healthy nutrition, by providing cash reimbursements to eligible childcare providers to purchase nutritious foods. This study examines the association among the FCCH provider characteristics, the mealtime environment, and the quality of foods offered to 2–5-year-old children in urban FCCHs and examines the quality of the mealtime environment and foods offered by CACFP participation. Methods: A cross-sectional design with a proportionate stratified random sample of urban FCCHs by the CACFP participation status was used. Data were collected by telephone using the Nutrition and Physical Activity Self-Assessment for Child Care survey. Results: A total of 91 licensed FCCHs (69 CACFP, 22 non-CACFP) participated. FCCH providers with formal nutrition training met significantly more of the quality standards for foods offered than providers without nutrition training (β = 0.22, p = 0.034). The mealtime environment was not related to any FCCH provider characteristics. CACFP-participating FCCH providers had a healthier mealtime environment (β = 0.326, p = 0.002) than non-CACFP FCCHs. Conclusions: Findings suggest that nutrition training and CACFP participation contribute to the quality of nutrition-related practices in the FCCH. We recommend more research on strengthening the quality of foods provided in FCCHs and the possible impact on childhood obesity.

Summary During adolescence, growth and development are transformative and have profound consequences on an individual's health in later life, as well as the health of any potential children. The current generation of adolescents is growing up at a time of unprecedented change in food environments, whereby nutritional problems of micronutrient deficiency and food insecurity persist, and overweight and obesity are burgeoning. In a context of pervasive policy neglect, research on nutrition during adolescence specifically has been underinvested, compared with such research in other age groups, which has inhibited the development of adolescent-responsive nutritional policies. One consequence has been the absence of an integrated perspective on adolescent growth and development, and the role that nutrition plays. Through late childhood and early adolescence, nutrition has a formative role in the timing and pattern of puberty, with consequences for adult height, muscle, and fat mass accrual, as well as risk of non-communicable diseases in later life. Nutritional effects in adolescent development extend beyond musculoskeletal growth, to cardiorespiratory fitness, neurodevelopment, and immunity. High rates of early adolescent pregnancy in many countries continue to jeopardise the growth and nutrition of female adolescents, with consequences that extend to the next generation. Adolescence is a nutrition-sensitive phase for growth, in which the benefits of good nutrition extend to many other physiological systems.

This study examined pre-pandemic (2017-early March 2020) to early-pandemic (Spring 2020) changes in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), light PA (LPA), and sedentary behavior/sleep (SS), by weekday/weekend, and age (preschool, elementary, middle school). We re-enrolled children from two pre-pandemic obesity prevention trials and examined differences in accelerometer-measured PA from pre-pandemic to early-pandemic across age groups using linear mixed models. Children (n = 75) were 51% multiple race/ethnicities, 29% preschool, 28% elementary, 43% middle school, 65% suburban, 21% rural, and 13% urban. Pre-pandemic to early-pandemic changes in weekday MVPA (p = 0.006), LPA (p = 0.018), and SS (p = 0.003) differed by age. On weekdays, middle schoolers’ MVPA decreased 15.36 min/day (p = 0.002) and SS increased 94.36 min/day (p < 0.001) with non-significant changes among preschoolers and elementary schoolers. Compared to elementary schoolers, middle schoolers’ changes in weekday MVPA (b = −16.34, p = 0.036) and SS (b = 63.28, p = 0.039) significantly differed. Declines in weekday MVPA and increases in SS among middle schoolers suggest that, compared with younger children, middle schoolers are dependent on school and recreational facilities for PA, and in their absence engage in more sedentary activities and sleep.

A recent policy in the U.S. authorized monthly benefits from a nutrition assistance program - Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) - to be used online to increase grocery access and promote healthy eating. This study examined online grocery attitudes and purchasing behaviors among low-income SNAP-eligible households with young children with and without online grocery experience. An explanatory sequential mixed methods design was used, including a survey informed by the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and focus groups conducted between November-March 2021. In the quantitative phase, 310 Maryland residents completed an online survey assessing TPB constructs (attitudes, social norms, perceived control), and food purchase frequency online and in-store. Subsequently, 42 participated in the qualitative phase. Differences in TPB constructs and food purchases were compared between families with and without online grocery experience. Online food selection and fees were a common obstacle to online grocery purchasing. Families who had purchased groceries online (57%) had more positive attitudes and perceived fewer barriers to online shopping than those who had not. Self-reported frequency of buying fresh produce (OR = 0.34, p 0.001), meat and seafood (OR = 0.29, p 0.001), and sweets (OR = 0.54, p = 0.005) were lower online than in-store. Families discussed mistrust of online hired shoppers and fewer impulse purchases online as reasons for less frequent purchases of produce and sweets, respectively. Successful scale-up of the U.S. policy must address barriers to healthier purchasing behaviors to effectively promote equitable food access, such as decreasing delivery fees and improving the online food selection.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between parental anxiety (father-only, mother-only, or both) and infant weight change. We performed a secondary data analysis among 551 children in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a birth cohort with weight measurements collected prospectively at 4, 8, and 12 months of age. Paternal and maternal anxiety symptoms were based on the eight-item anxiety subscale of the Crown-Crisp Experiential Index. Scores in the top 15% at 8 weeks postpartum were classified as high anxiety. Generalized Estimating Equations were employed to estimate the joint association between parental anxiety and change in child weight-for-age z-score. Children who had fathers, but not mothers, with anxiety showed a 0.15 (95% CI: 0.01, 0.29) greater increase in weight-for-age z-score than children with neither parent anxious. This result suggests that paternal anxiety, not maternal anxiety, was associated with increases in child weight gain in the first year of life. Public health practitioners and clinicians should consider the use of robust measures of both maternal and paternal anxiety in the postpartum period, in addition to the suggested screening for postpartum depression. Given the limitations of the study, this study should be considered preliminary and hypothesis generating.

OBJECTIVES: Toddlers are vulnerable to unintentional injuries. A safety intervention targeting low-income families of toddlers, was effective at improving home safety. The current study examined whether the effect varies by initial home safety problems. METHODS: 277 mother-toddler dyads recruited in the Mid- Atlantic region of the United States during 2007–2010 were randomized into safety promotion (n=91) or attention-control groups (n=186). Observers rated participants’ homes with a 9-item safety problem checklist at baseline, and at 6- and 12-months follow-up. Initial home safety problems were categorized as multiple (>=4 problems) and none/few (

Objectives Poverty is a risk for short sleep duration and limited physical activity. This study describes sleep, physical activity, and sedentary behavior of Women, Infants, and Children–eligible toddlers and the proportion of toddlers meeting recommendations for sleep and physical activity, and examines associations with body mass index z scores and poverty. Participants/measurements A total of 101 toddlers (12-32 months) from low-income families (62% African American) wore 24-hour ankle accelerometers over 3-7 consecutive days. Concurrent validity for daytime napping was assessed using parent-reported toddler wake/sleep between 08:00 and 20:00 collected using Ecological Momentary Assessment. Logistic regressions predicted odds of meeting guidelines. Results Toddlers averaged 10.56 hours of sleep in 24 hours. All toddlers averaged ≥180 minutes of total activity per day, 38% had ≥60 minutes of moderate/vigorous physical activity per day, 32% of toddlers slept between 11 and 14 hours over 24 hours, and 26% had a bedtime before 9:00 pm . Body mass index z score was not associated with meeting guidelines. Poverty was associated with less than 60 minutes of moderate/vigorous physical activity. Conclusions Most toddlers were not meeting sleep guidelines. This study provides objective data on sleep and activity among a diverse sample of low-income toddlers. Objective measures of sleep and physical activity facilitate surveillance of children meeting guidelines for sleep and physical activity. Such norms are needed to examine disparities among children from varying racial and economic backgrounds. Future research should examine if meeting guidelines is related to other health indicators.

Background While maternal depression has been linked to impaired child growth, the relationship between anxiety and child weight gain is unknown. The study objective was to investigate maternal pre- and post-natal anxiety in relation to child weight gain. Methods Data included 1168 children in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Child height and weight were measured at the median ages of 25 and 31 months postnatally and used to calculate body mass index (BMI). Maternal anxiety was measured with the Crown-Crisp Experiential Index at 18 and 32 gestational weeks, and two and 21 months postpartum. Mothers scoring in the top 15% at one or more of the four time points were considered to have anxiety. Maternal depressive symptoms were measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale-7 (EPDS-7) at these same time points. Maternal depression was defined as EPDS-7 scores of >10. We used Generalized Estimating Equations to assess whether child BMI trajectories varied by the presence of maternal anxiety. Parallel analyses were conducted for maternal depression. Results Among children of mothers who had anxiety at least at one timepoint, the BMI changes associated with a three-month increase in child age increased by 0.06 (95% CI:0.004-0.12) compared to BMI changes in children of mothers without anxiety. Maternal depressive symptoms were not associated with child BMI trajectories. Limitations Maternal anxiety and depressive symptoms were based on maternal self-report. Conclusion Maternal anxiety around childbirth was associated with modest increases in child BMI gain during the child's second year of life

Objective To assess the impact of a multilevel nutrition intervention for low-income child care environments, staff, and center-enrolled children. Design A cluster-randomized, controlled trial conducted among eligible centers. Staff and parent self-report surveys and objective field observations at baseline and follow-up were conducted. Setting A total of 22 low-income child care centers (enrolling ≥ 25 2- to 5-year-old children). Participants Children aged 18–71 months; 408 children and 97 staff were randomized into intervention (208 children and 50 staff) and waitlist-control groups (200 children and 45 staff). Retention rates were high (87% for children and 93% for staff). Intervention(s) A 6-session, 6-month director's child nutrition course with on-site technical support for center teachers. Main Outcome Measure(s) Center nutrition/physical activity environment; staff feeding styles, dietary patterns, and attitudes about food; child food preferences and dietary patterns. Analysis Covariance regression analyses to assess the intervention effect, adjusting for clustering within centers. Results Significant intervention effects were found for the center nutrition training/education environment (b = 3.01; P = .03), nutrition total scores (b = 1.29; P = .04), and staff-level prompting/encouraging feeding styles (b = 0.38; P = .04). No significant intervention effects were found for child-level measures. Conclusions and Implications Curriculum-driven training and implementation support improved nutritional policies and practices and staff–child interactions during meals. Future research could extend the intervention to families and the evaluation to children's dietary behaviors and weight changes.

Objective To estimate the associations between measles vaccination and child anthropometry, cognition, and schooling outcomes in Ethiopia, India, and Vietnam. Methods Longitudinal survey data from Young Lives were used to compare outcomes at ages 7–8 and 11–12 years between children who reported receipt or non-receipt of measles vaccine at 6–18 months-of-life ( n = ∼2000/country). Z-scores of height-for-age (HAZ), BMI-for-age (BMIZ), weight-for-age (WAZ), Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), early grade reading assessment (EGRA), language and mathematics tests, and attained schooling grade were examined. Propensity score matching was used to control for systematic differences between measles-vaccinated and measles-unvaccinated children. Findings Using age- and country-matched measles-unvaccinated children as comparisons, measles-vaccinated children had better anthropometrics, cognition, and schooling. Measles-vaccinated children had 0.1 higher HAZ in India and 0.2 higher BMIZ and WAZ in Vietnam at age 7–8 years, and 0.2 higher BMIZ at age 11–12 years in Vietnam. At ages 7–8 years, they scored 4.5 and 2.9 percentage points (pp) more on PPVT and mathematics, and 2.3 points more on EGRA in Ethiopia, 2.5 points more on EGRA in India, and 2.6 pp, 4 pp, and 2.7 points more respectively on PPVT, mathematics, and EGRA in Vietnam. At ages 11–12 years, they scored 3 pp more on English and PPVT in India, and 1.7 pp more on PPVT in Vietnam. They also attained 0.2–0.3 additional schooling grades across all ages and countries. Conclusion Our findings suggest that measles vaccination may have benefits on cognitive gains and school-grade attainment that can have broad educational and economic consequences which extend beyond early childhood.

Study Objectives:The aims of this study were to examine (1) relationships among implementing a bedtime routine, nighttime awakenings, and nighttime sleep duration in toddlers from low-income, minor...

The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) helps working families meet their nutritional needs. Families whose earned income increases in a given month may have their SNAP benefits abruptly reduced or cut off in the following month. Using sentinel sample data from 2007-15 for families with children younger than age four, we investigated how SNAP benefit reductions or cutoffs resulting from increased income were related to economic hardships (food and energy insecurity, unstable housing, forgone health and/or dental care, and health cost sacrifices) and to caregiver and child health. After we controlled for covariates, we found that the groups whose SNAP benefits were reduced or cut off had significantly increased odds of household and child food insecurity, compared to a group with consistent participation in SNAP. Reduced benefits were associated with 1.43 and 1.22 times greater odds of fair or poor caregiver and child health, respectively. Policy modifications to smooth changes in benefit levels as work incomes improve may protect working families with young children from increased food insecurity, poor health, and forgone care.

Background As part of the USDA-Department of Health and Human Services Pregnancy and Birth to 24 Months Project, we conducted systematic reviews (SRs) on topics important for health and nutrition of young children. Objectives The purpose of the present SR was to examine the relation between caregiver feeding practices in children from birth to 24 mo and child weight gain, size, and body composition. Methods A search of articles published from January 1980 to January 2017 in 4 databases identified 8739 references. Nutrition Evidence Systematic Review (NESR) analysts used the Nutrition Evidence Library Risk of Bias Assessment Tool to assess potential bias in the studies, and a Technical Expert Collaborative graded the body of evidence using the NESR grading rubric. Results Twenty-seven articles were included in this review (8 controlled trials, 19 longitudinal cohort studies). Moderate evidence from randomized controlled trials suggests that providing responsive feeding guidance to teach mothers to recognize and respond appropriately to children's hunger and satiety cues can lead to "normal" weight gain and/or "normal" weight status in children aged ≤2 y compared with children whose mothers did not receive responsive feeding guidance. Moderate evidence from longitudinal cohort studies indicates an association between maternal feeding practices and the child's weight status and/or weight gain, but the direction of effect has not been adequately studied. Restrictive feeding practices are associated with increased weight gain and higher weight status, and pressuring feeding practices are associated with decreased weight gain and lower weight status. Evidence suggests that a mother's feeding practices are related to concerns about her child's body weight. Conclusions This review highlights the importance of the interaction between caregivers and infants and toddlers related to child feeding practices on children's weight outcomes. Research is needed on more diverse populations with consistent methodological app-roaches and objective measures.

Background Maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation may provide the earliest opportunity to positively influence child food acceptance. Objective Systematic reviews were completed to examine the relation among maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation, amniotic fluid flavor, breast-milk flavor, and children's food acceptability and overall dietary intake. Design A literature search was conducted in 10 databases (e.g., PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, and CINAHL) to identify articles published from January 1980 to June 2017. Data from each included study were extracted, risk of bias assessed, evidence synthesized qualitatively, conclusion statements developed, and strength of the evidence graded. Results Eleven and 15 articles met a priori criteria for inclusion to answer questions related to maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation, respectively. Conclusions Limited but consistent evidence indicates that flavors (alcohol, anise, carrot, garlic) originating from the maternal diet during pregnancy can transfer to and flavor amniotic fluid, and fetal flavor exposure increases acceptance of similarly flavored foods when re-exposed during infancy and potentially childhood. Moderate evidence indicates that flavors originating from the maternal diet during lactation (alcohol, anise/caraway, carrot, eucalyptus, garlic, mint) transmit to and flavor breast milk in a time-dependent manner. Moderate evidence indicates that infants can detect diet-transmitted flavors in breast milk within hours of a single maternal ingestion (alcohol, garlic, vanilla, carrot), within days after repeated maternal ingestion (garlic, carrot juice), and within 1-4 mo postpartum after repeated maternal ingestion (variety of vegetables including carrot) during lactation. Findings may not generalize to all foods and beverages. Conclusions cannot be drawn to describe the relationship between mothers' diet during either pregnancy or lactation and children's overall dietary intake.

Young children’s growth is influenced by food and feeding behavior. Responsive feeding has been shown to promote healthy growth and development, to prevent under- and overfeeding, and to encourage children’s self-regulation. However, most measures of responsive feeding do not incorporate bidirectional mother-infant responsivity or early learning principles and have not been validated against observations. To overcome these gaps, we laid the groundwork for a responsive feeding measure based on a community sample of 67 mothers and their 6–18-month-old children in Bangladesh. Children were weighed and measured. Mothers reported on their child’s dietary intake and responded to a 38-item responsive feeding questionnaire developed through a 2-phase Delphi procedure. Based on a video-recorded feeding observation, mother-child dyads were categorized into proximal (43%) and distal (57%) responsivity groups. Using stepwise logistic regression, a 9-item model from the responsive feeding questionnaire had excellent fit (AUC = 0.93), sensitivity (90%), specificity (89%), positive predictive value (87%), and negative predictive value (93%). Proximal responsivity was characterized by maternal concerns about children’s dietary intake. Distal responsivity was characterized by maternal perception of children’s happy mood during feeding. Findings support responsive feeding as modulating between proximal and distal responsivity, promoting autonomy, self-regulation, and enabling children to acquire and practice healthy eating behaviors.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the associations between childcare staff feeding practices and preschool children's willingness to try new foods (WTNF). METHODS: Participants included children (n = 460), ages 3–5 years, and childcare staff (n = 91) recruited from childcare centers in Maryland participating in baseline assessment of a randomized controlled trial to evaluate strategies to promote the development of healthy eating behaviors. Staff feeding practices were measured using the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) adapted to the childcare setting. Children's WTNF was evaluated by offering 6 novel and 3 familiar foods during a food tasting activity administered in the childcare center. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were used to evaluate the factor structure of the adapted version of the CFPQ, and to identify modified factor structures. Logistic regressions assessed the association between childcare staff feeding practices (i.e., average staff feeding factor scores in a classroom) and children's WTNF (dichotomized as high: tried ≥ 3 novel foods vs. low: tried

OBJECTIVES: The USDA is partnering with retailers to authorize online EBT card use to increase grocery store access and promote healthy eating. We examined online grocery shopping behaviors among households with children (< age 8), including SNAP recipients and SNAP-eligible non-recipients (income

Based on the ecological model of active living, the neighborhood environment may relate to individual physical activity (PA) behaviors. The purposes of this study were to (1) generate a replicable neighborhood-level physical activity location availability score (PALAS) from data variables associated with physical activity among adolescents and adults, and apply this score to Baltimore City, Maryland, and (2) determine if relationships exist between PA and PA location availability. Geographic information systems (GISs) were used to create the PALAS. Using linear regression models, we examined relations between objectively measured PA among low-income, urban, predominantly African American adolescent girls (n = 555, 2009–2012 data collection), and the PALAS rating of their neighborhood environment (neighborhood PALAS) and their home neighborhood area (PALAS variables/subcomponents within 0.25 miles of the home). A PALAS map of the study area was created, illustrating neighborhoods varying in availability and variety of PA locations. After adjusting for confounders, a higher neighborhood PALAS (β = 0.10, p = 0.041) and the presence of a recreation center in the home neighborhood area (β = 0.46, p = 0.011) were associated with more minutes per day spent in moderate to vigorous PA. Policy makers and stakeholders should consider increasing access to PA locations as a strategy to promote PA among adolescent girls.

A comprehensive evidence-based framework is needed to guide policies and programmes that enable children and adolescents to accrue the human capital required to meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This paper proposes a comprehensive, multisectoral, multilevel life-course conceptualisation of human capital development by building on the Nurturing Care Framework (NCF), originally developed for the foundational period of growth and development through the age 3 years. Nurturing care (NC) comprises stable environments that promote children’s health and nutrition, protect from threats, and provide opportunities for learning and responsive, emotionally supportive and developmentally enriching relationships. NC is fostered by families, communities, services, national policies and beyond. The principles apply across the life course, endorse equity and human rights, and promote long-term human capital. This paper presents an evidence-based argument for the extension of the NCF from preconception through adolescence (0–20 years), organised into six developmental periods: preconception/prenatal, newborn/birth, infancy/toddlerhood, preschool, middle childhood and adolescence. The proposed framework advances human capital within each developmental period by promoting resilience and adaptive developmental trajectories while mitigating negative consequences of adversities.Attaining the SDGs depends on strengthening human capital formation, extending throughout childhood and adolescence and supported by NC. Embedded in enabling laws, policies and services, the dynamic NCF components can mitigate adversities, enhance resilience and promote the well-being of marginalised groups. The life-course extension of the NCF is strategically positioned to enhance human capital, to attain the SDGs and to ensure that children or adolescents are not left behind in reaching their developmental potential.

Background Growth faltering in the first 1000 d is associated with lower human capital among adults. The existence of a second window of opportunity for nutritional interventions during adolescence has been postulated. Objectives We aimed to verify the associations between growth from birth to 18 y and intelligence and schooling in a cohort. Methods A total of 5249 hospital-born infants in Pelotas, Brazil, were enrolled during 1993. Follow-up visits to random subsamples took place at 6, 12, and 48 mo and to the full cohort at 11, 15, and 18 y. Weight and length/height were collected in all visits. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale was applied at age 18 y, and primary school completion was recorded. Conditional length/height and conditional BMI were calculated and expressed as z scores according to the WHO Growth Standards. These express the difference between observed and expected size at a given age based on a regression that includes earlier anthropometric measures. Analyses were adjusted for income, parental education, maternal skin color and smoking, and breastfeeding duration. Results In the adjusted analyses, participants with conditional length ≥1 z score at 1 y had mean intelligence quotient (IQ) scores at 18 y 4.50 points (95% CI: 1.08, 7.92) higher than those with conditional length ≤−1 at 1 y. For height-for-age at 4 y, this difference was equal to 3.70 (95% CI: 0.49, 6.90) IQ points. There were no associations between conditional height at 11, 15, or 18 y and IQ. For the same previously mentioned comparison, the prevalence ratio for less than primary schooling was 1.42 (95% CI: 1.12, 1.80) for conditional height at 1 y. There were no consistent associations with conditional BMI. Conclusions Our findings show that adolescent growth is not associated with intelligence and schooling, and are consistent with the literature on the associations between intelligence and schooling and early linear growth.

African American caregivers in low-income, urban communities have high rates of food insecurity. Unemployment, education, smoking, stress, and depressive symptoms are associated with household food insecurity. A cumulative risk model suggests that accumulation of risk may compound food insecurity risk, and certain risk factors are more likely to co-occur. This study utilizes two approaches to examine food insecurity risk among African American caregivers with an adolescent daughter—a cumulative risk index to examine accumulation of risk and food insecurity risk; latent class analysis (LCA) to determine if certain risk profiles exist and their relation to food insecurity risk. Caregivers completed surveys including demographic, psychosocial, and behavioral questions (to create a cumulative risk index) and a validated 2-item food insecurity screen. LCA was used to identify risk profiles. Logistic regression was used to examine relations between cumulative risk, risk profiles, and food insecurity risk. Each additional cumulative risk index factor was associated with a 54% increase in odds of risk of food insecurity. LCA identified three subgroups: high stress/depression (class #1), low education/low stress and depression (class #2), and low risk overall (class #3). Odds of food insecurity risk were 4.7 times higher for class #1, and 1.5 times higher for class #2 compared with class #3. This study contributes to understanding of how food insecurity risk relates to cumulative risk and risk profiles. Findings can be used to improve food insecurity risk screening in clinical settings, enhancing intervention/referral for food security risk and mental health among African American caregivers and their households.

Global physical activity guidelines for preschoolers include 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) daily. This study, based on the developmental model of motor skill competence, examines how motor competence relates to preschoolers&rsquo, likelihood of meeting global guidelines using ankle accelerometry. We measured physical activity using 24-h ankle-placement accelerometry (Actical) for at least two consecutive days (87% with six-seven days), motor competence using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), and BMI-for-age z-scores (BMIz) using anthropometry and age- and sex-specific CDC norms. Caregivers provided demographic characteristics of children&rsquo, s age, sex, and race. We used multivariable logistic regression to examine how motor competence, BMIz weight status, and demographic characteristics related to meeting global physical activity guidelines. The sample included 588 preschoolers, age 3&ndash, 5 years, 55% male, 60% white, and 28% overweight/obese, 75% attained the recommended 60 min of MVPA per day. The odds of meeting MVPA guidelines were associated with higher gross motor quotient, higher object control scores, sex (male), age (older), and race (white), but not with BMIz weight status. Findings support the use of 24-h ankle accelerometry among preschoolers and are consistent with the developmental model of motor competence applied to preschoolers, whereby object control competence relates positively to attaining global physical activity guidelines.