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Sinusoids are specialized, low pressure blood vessels in the liver, bone marrow, and spleen required for definitive hematopoiesis. Unlike other blood endothelial cells (ECs), sinusoidal ECs express high levels of VEGFR3. VEGFR3 and its ligand VEGF-C are known to support lymphatic growth, but their function in sinusoidal vessels is unknown. In this study, we define a reciprocal VEGF-C/VEGFR3-CDH5 (VE-cadherin) signaling axis that controls growth of both sinusoidal and lymphatic vessels. Loss of VEGF-C or VEGFR3 resulted in cutaneous edema, reduced fetal liver size, and bloodless bone marrow due to impaired lymphatic and sinusoidal vessel growth. Mice with membrane-retained VE-cadherin conferred identical lymphatic and sinusoidal defects, suggesting that VE-cadherin opposes VEGF-C/VEGFR3 signaling. In developing mice, loss of VE-cadherin rescued defects in sinusoidal and lymphatic growth caused by loss of VEGFR3 but not loss of VEGF-C, findings explained by potentiated VEGF-C/VEGFR2 signaling in VEGFR3-deficient lymphatic ECs. Mechanistically, VEGF-C/VEGFR3 signaling induces VE-cadherin endocytosis and loss of function via SRC-mediated phosphorylation, while VE-cadherin prevents VEGFR3 endocytosis required for optimal receptor signaling. These findings establish an essential role for VEGF-C/VEGFR3 signaling during sinusoidal vascular growth, identify VE-cadherin as a powerful negative regulator of VEGF-C signaling that acts through both VEGFR3 and VEGFR2 receptors, and suggest that negative regulation of VE-cadherin is required for effective VEGF-C/VEGFR3 signaling during growth of sinusoidal and lymphatic vessels. Manipulation of this reciprocal negative regulatory mechanism, e.g. by reducing VE-cadherin function, may be used to stimulate therapeutic sinusoidal or lymphatic vessel growth.

Transcriptional networks governing cardiac precursor cell (CPC) specification are incompletely understood due in part to limitations in distinguishing CPCs from non-cardiac mesoderm in early gastrulation. We leveraged detection of early cardiac lineage transgenes within a granular single cell transcriptomic time course of mouse embryos to identify emerging CPCs and describe their transcriptional profiles. Mesp1, a transiently-expressed mesodermal transcription factor (TF), is canonically described as an early regulator of cardiac specification. However, we observed perdurance of CPC transgene-expressing cells in Mesp1 mutants, albeit mis-localized, prompting us to investigate the scope of Mesp1’s role in CPC emergence and differentiation. Mesp1 mutant CPCs failed to robustly activate markers of cardiomyocyte maturity and critical cardiac TFs, yet they exhibited transcriptional profiles resembling cardiac mesoderm progressing towards cardiomyocyte fates. Single cell chromatin accessibility analysis defined a Mesp1-dependent developmental breakpoint in cardiac lineage progression at a shift from mesendoderm transcriptional networks to those necessary for cardiac patterning and morphogenesis. These results reveal Mesp1-independent aspects of early CPC specification and underscore a Mesp1-dependent regulatory landscape required for progression through cardiogenesis.

The coordination of progenitor self-renewal, neuronal production, and migration is essential to the normal development and evolution of the cerebral cortex. Numerous studies have shown that the Notch, Wnt/beta-catenin, and Neurogenin pathways contribute separately to progenitor expansion, neurogenesis, and neuronal migration, but it is unknown how these signals are coordinated. In vitro studies suggested that the mastermind-like 1 (MAML1) gene, homologue of the Drosophila mastermind, plays a role in coordinating the aforementioned signaling pathways, yet its role during cortical development remains largely unknown. Here we show that ectopic expression of dominant-negative MAML (dnMAML) causes exuberant neuronal production in the mouse cortex without disrupting neuronal migration. Comparing the transcriptional consequences of dnMAML and Neurog2 ectopic expression revealed a complex genetic network controlling the balance of progenitor expansion versus neuronal production. Manipulation of MAML and Neurog2 in cultured human cerebral stem cells exposed interactions with the same set of signaling pathways. Thus, our data suggest that evolutionary changes that affect the timing, tempo, and density of successive neuronal layers of the small lissencephalic rodent and large convoluted primate cerebral cortex depend on similar molecular mechanisms that act from the earliest developmental stages.

Anti-cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1 ) polyclonal antibodies are widely used to detect the presence of CB1 in a variety of brain cells and their organelles, including neuronal mitochondria. Surprisingly, we found that anti-CB1 sera, in parallel with CB1 , also recognize the mitochondrial protein stomatin-like protein 2. In addition, we show that the previously reported effect of synthetic cannabinoid WIN 55,212-2 on mitochondrial complex III respiration is not detectable in purified mitochondrial preparations. Thus, our study indicates that a direct relationship between endocannabinoid signaling and mitochondrial functions in the cerebral cortex seems unlikely, and that caution should be taken interpreting findings obtained using anti-CB1 antibodies.

Characterizing the genetic programs that specify development and evolution of the cerebral cortex is a central challenge in neuroscience. Stem cells in the transient embryonic ventricular and subventricular zones generate neurons that migrate across the intermediate zone to the overlying cortical plate, where they differentiate and form the neocortex. It is clear that not one but a multitude of molecular pathways are necessary to progress through each cellular milestone, yet the underlying transcriptional programs remain unknown. Here, we apply differential transcriptome analysis on microscopically isolated cell populations, to define five transcriptional programs that represent each transient embryonic zone and the progression between these zones. The five transcriptional programs contain largely uncharacterized genes in addition to transcripts necessary for stem cell maintenance, neurogenesis, migration, and differentiation. Additionally, we found intergenic transcriptionally active regions that possibly encode unique zone-specific transcripts. Finally, we present a high-resolution transcriptome map of transient zones in the embryonic mouse forebrain.

In the past three decades, mounting evidence has revealed that specification of the basic cortical neuronal classes starts at the time of their final mitotic divisions in the embryonic proliferative zones. This early cell determination continues during the migration of the newborn neurons across the widening cerebral wall, and it is in the cortical plate that they attain their final positions and establish species-specific cytoarchitectonic areas. Here, the development and evolutionary expansion of the neocortex is viewed in the context of the radial unit and protomap hypotheses. A broad spectrum of findings gave insight into the pathogenesis of cortical malformations and the biological bases for the evolution of the modern human neocortex. We examine the history and evidence behind the concept of early specification of neurons and provide the latest compendium of genes and signaling molecules involved in neuronal fate determination and specification.

The FOXP2 gene is implicated in the development of human speech and language. A comparison of the human and chimpanzee FOXP2 proteins highlights the differences in function in the two species.