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Plus-stranded RNA viruses replicate in the cytosol of infected cells, in membrane-bound replication complexes. We previously identified double membrane vesicles (DMVs) in the cytoplasm of cells infected with Berne virus (BEV), the prototype member of the Torovirus genus (Nidovirales Order). Our previous analysis by transmission electron microscopy suggested that the DMVs form a reticulovesicular network (RVN) analogous those described for the related severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-1). Here, we used serial sectioning and electron tomography to characterize the architecture of torovirus replication organelles, and to learn about their biogenesis and dynamics during the infection. The formation of a RVN in BEV infected cells was confirmed, where the outer membranes of the DMVs are interconnected with each other and with the ER. Paired or zippered ER membranes connected with the DMVs were also observed, and likely represent early structures that evolve to give rise to DMVs. Also, paired membranes forming small spherule-like invaginations were observed at late time post-infection. Although resembling in size, the tomographic analysis show that these structures are clearly different from the true spherules described previously for coronaviruses. Hence, BEV shows important similarities, but also some differences, in the architecture of the replication organelles with other nidoviruses., This work was supported by grants AGL2017-87464-C2-1-P to DR and SAF2017-84565-R to JJF funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by “ERDF A way of making Europe”, by the European Union. GAP was supported by a FPU fellowship from the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. We acknowledge access to the cryoEM CNB-CSIC facility in the context of the CRIOMECORR project (ESFRI-2019-01-CSIC-16).

Members of the Bacillus genus, particularly the “Bacillus subtilis group”, are known to produce amphipathic lipopeptides with biosurfactant activity. This includes the surfactins, fengycins and iturins that have been associated with antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-viral properties. We have screened a large collection of Bacillus, isolated from human, animal, estuarine water and soil samples and found that the most potent lipopeptide producers are members of the species Bacillus velezensis. B. velezensis lipopeptides exhibited anti-bacterial activity which was localised on the surface of both vegetative cells and spores. Interestingly, lipopeptide micelles (6–10 nm diameter) were detectable in strains exhibiting the highest levels of activity. Micelles were stable (heat and gastric stable) and shown to entrap other antimicrobials produced by the host bacterium (exampled here was the dipeptide antibiotic chlorotetaine). Commercially acquired lipopeptides did not exhibit similar levels of inhibitory activity and we suspect that micelle formation may relate to the particular isomeric forms produced by individual bacteria. Using naturally produced micelle formulations we demonstrated that they could entrap antimicrobial compounds (e.g., clindamycin, vancomycin and resveratrol). Micellar incorporation of antibiotics increased activity. Bacillus is a prolific producer of antimicrobials, and this phenomenon could be exploited naturally to augment antimicrobial activity. From an applied perspective, the ability to readily produce Bacillus micelles and formulate with drugs enables a possible strategy for enhanced drug delivery., Medical Research Council (MR/R026262/1) to SMCand the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of the Spanish Government PID2019_108778GB_C21 (AEI/FEDER, EU)

Some viruses take advantage of conjugation of ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like proteins to enhance their own replication. One example is Ebola virus, which has evolved strategies to utilize these modification pathways to regulate the viral proteins VP40 and VP35 and to counteract the host defenses. Here, we show a novel mechanism by which Ebola virus exploits the ubiquitin and SUMO pathways. Our data reveal that minor matrix protein VP24 of Ebola virus is a bona fide SUMO target. Analysis of a SUMOylation-defective VP24 mutant revealed a reduced ability to block the type I interferon (IFN) pathway and to inhibit IFN-mediated STAT1 nuclear translocation, exhibiting a weaker interaction with karyopherin 5 and significantly diminished stability. Using glutathione S-transferase (GST) pulldown assay, we found that VP24 also interacts with SUMO in a noncovalent manner through a SIM domain. Mutation of the SIM domain in VP24 resulted in a complete inability of the protein to downmodulate the IFN pathway and in the monoubiquitination of the protein. We identified SUMO deubiquitinating enzyme ubiquitin-specific-processing protease 7 (USP7) as an interactor and a negative modulator of VP24 ubiquitination. Finally, we show that mutation of one ubiquitination site in VP24 potentiates the IFN modulatory activity of the viral protein and its ability to block IFN-mediated STAT1 nuclear translocation, pointing to the ubiquitination of VP24 as a negative modulator of the VP24 activity. Altogether, these results indicate that SUMO interacts with VP24 and promotes its USP7-mediated deubiquitination, playing a key role in the interference with the innate immune response mediated by the viral protein.IMPORTANCE The Ebola virus VP24 protein plays a critical role in escape of the virus from the host innate immune response. Therefore, deciphering the molecular mechanisms modulating VP24 activity may be useful to identify potential targets amenable to therapeutics. Here, we identify the cellular proteins USP7, SUMO, and ubiquitin as novel interactors and regulators of VP24. These interactions may represent novel potential targets to design new antivirals with the ability to modulate Ebola virus replication., Funding at the laboratory of C.R. is provided by Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities and FEDER (BFU-2017-88880-P). C.R. also acknowledges grants GRC GI-2119 (Xunta de Galicia) and SAF2017-90900-REDT (UBIRed Program). S.V. is a predoctoral fellow funded by Xunta de Galicia. M.B.-M. is a postdoctoral fellow funded by Xunta de Galicia (Consellería de Cultura, Educación e Ordenación Universitaria). A.E.M. is the recipient of a fellowship of the Spanish FPI program. This work was partially funded by the German Center for Infection Research (DZIF TTU 01.702_00 to C.M.-F.). R.B. and J.D.S. acknowledge grants BFU2017-84653-P (MINECO/FEDER, EU), SEV-2016-0644 (Severo Ochoa Excellence Program), 765445-EU (UbiCODE Program), and SAF2017- 90900-REDT (UBIRed Program). C.S.M. acknowledges grant BFU2016-74868-P.

Plus-stranded RNA viruses replicate in the cytosol of infected cells, in membrane-bound replication complexes containing the replicase proteins, the viral RNA and host proteins. The formation of the replication and transcription complexes (RTCs) through the rearrangement of cellular membranes is currently being actively studied for viruses belonging to different viral families. In this work, we identified double-membrane vesicles (DMVs) in the cytoplasm of cells infected with the equine torovirus Berne virus (BEV), the prototype member of the Torovirus genus (Coronaviridae family, Nidovirales order). Using confocal microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, we observed a close relationship between the RTCs and the DMVs of BEV. The examination of BEV-infected cells revealed that the replicase proteins colocalize with each other and with newly synthesized RNA and are associated to the membrane rearrangement induced by BEV. However, the double-stranded RNA, an intermediate of viral replication, is exclusively limited to the interior of DMVs. Our results with BEV resemble those obtained with other related viruses in the Nidovirales order, thus providing new evidence to support the idea that nidoviruses share a common replicative structure based on the DMV arranged clusters.

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic pathogen that can infect many types of cells and establishes latent infections in the neurons of sensory ganglia. In some cases, the virus spreads into the central nervous system, causing encephalitis or meningitis. Cells infected with several different types of viruses may secrete microvesicles (MVs) containing viral proteins and RNAs. In some instances, extracellular microvesicles harboring infectious virus have been found. Here we describe the features of shedding microvesicles released by the human oligodendroglial HOG cell line infected with HSV-1 and their participation in the viral cycle. Using transmission electron microscopy, we detected for the first time microvesicles containing HSV-1 virions. Interestingly, the Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line, which is resistant to infection by free HSV-1 virions, was susceptible to HSV-1 infection after being exposed to virus-containing microvesicles. Therefore, our results indicate for the first time that MVs released by infected cells contain virions, are endocytosed by naive cells, and lead to a productive infection. Furthermore, infection of CHO cells was not completely neutralized when virus-containing microvesicles were preincubated with neutralizing anti-HSV-1 antibodies. The lack of complete neutralization and the ability of MVs to infect nectin-1/HVEM-negative CHO-K1 cells suggest a novel way for HSV-1 to spread to and enter target cells. Taken together, our results suggest that HSV-1 could spread through microvesicles to expand its tropism and that microvesicles could shield the virus from neutralizing antibodies as a possible mechanism to escape the host immune response. IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic pathogen that can infect many types of cells and establishes latent infections in neurons. Extracellular vesicles are a heterogeneous group of membrane vesicles secreted by most cell types. Microvesicles, which are extracellular vesicles which derive from the shedding of the plasma membrane, isolated from the supernatant of HSV-1-infected HOG cells were analyzed to find out whether they were involved in the viral cycle. The importance of our investigation lies in the detection, for the first time, of microvesicles containing HSV-1 virions. In addition, virus-containing microvesicles were endocytosed into CHO-K1 cells and were able to actively infect these otherwise nonpermissive cells. Finally, the infection of CHO cells with these virus-containing microvesicles was not completely neutralized by anti-HSV-1 antibodies, suggesting that these extracellular vesicles might shield the virus from neutralizing antibodies as a possible mechanism of immune evasion.

Incluye abstract gráfico, Although memory T cells respond more vigorously to stimulation and they are more sensitive to low doses of antigen than naive T cells, the molecular basis of this increased sensitivity remains unclear. We have previously shown that the T cell receptor (TCR) exists as different-sized oligomers on the surface of resting T cells and that large oligomers are preferentially activated in response to low antigen doses. Through biochemistry and electron microscopy, we now showed that previously stimulated and memory T cells have more and larger TCR oligomers at the cell surface than their naive counterparts. Reconstitution of cells and mice with a point mutant of the CD3ζ subunit, which impairs TCR oligomer formation, demonstrated that the increased size of TCR oligomers was directly responsible for the increased sensitivity of antigen-experienced T cells. Thus, we propose that an “avidity maturation” mechanism underlies T cell antigenic memory., This work was supported by grants SAF2006-01391 and SAF2010-14912 from the CICYT to B.A., FP7/2007-2013 (Sybilla) from the EU to B.A. and W.W.A.S and BFU2006-04031 and BFU2009-08009 from the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación to H.M.v.S. W.W.A.S. was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through the Emmy Noether program, the excellence cluster bioss and the SFB620. M.F. is a recipient of a FPI predoctoral fellowship (ref BES-2007-15570) from the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación. H.M.v.S. was supported by a Ramón y Cajal fellowship from the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia during the initial stages of this project.

Toroviruses are emergent viruses, belonging to the Nidovirales order, that remain mostly ignored, despite they are able to infect different species of domestic animals and humans, causing enteric diseases and diarrhea. Thus far, only five variants of porcine torovirus (PToV) have been identified. In this report we describe the identification and partial characterization of a new strain of porcine torovirus (PToV-BRES) that was detected by RT-PCR in a swine faecal specimen from a farm in Brescia (Italy). The complete genes coding for the nucleocapsid (N), hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) and membrane (M) proteins were amplified, and sequence analysis showed that PToV-BRES is a new PToV strain that, based on the HE gene sequence, is phylogenetically related to P4 strain, that was up to now the only member of a distinct PToV lineage. The nucleocapsid protein from PToV-BRES was expressed in insect cells as a his-tagged protein, purified by affinity chromatography and used to develop an ELISA method to detect antibodies against PToV. This assay was evaluated using a serum collection including 45 samples from three commercial farms from Spain. High antibody prevalence against PToV was observed in the three farms, both in adult animals and in piglets, which could suggest that PToV might be endemic in Spanish porcine population. The ELISA method developed in this work could be useful in future epidemiological surveys about toroviruses.

Recombinant severe acute respiratory virus (SARS-CoV) variants lacking the group specific genes 6, 7a, 7b, 8a, 8b and 9b (rSARS-CoV-Δ[6-9b]), the structural gene E (rSARS-CoV-ΔE), and a combination of both sets of genes (rSARS-CoV-Δ[E,6-9b]) have been generated. All these viruses were rescued in monkey (Vero E6) cells and were also infectious for human (Huh-7, Huh7.5.1 and CaCo-2) cell lines and for transgenic (Tg) mice expressing the SARS-CoV receptor human angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (hACE-2), indicating that none of these proteins is essential for the viral cycle. Furthermore, in Vero E6 cells, all the viruses showed the formation of particles with the same morphology as the wt virus, indicating that these proteins do not have a high impact in the final morphology of the virions. Nevertheless, in the absence of E protein, release of virus particles efficacy was reduced. Viruses lacking E protein grew about 100-fold lower than the wt virus in lungs of Tg infected mice but did not grow in the brains of the same animals, in contrast to the rSARS-CoV-Δ[6-9b] virus, which grew almost as well as the wt in both tissues. Viruses lacking E protein were highly attenuated in the highly sensitive hACE-2 Tg mice, in contrast to the minimal rSARS-CoV-Δ[6-9b] and wt viruses. These data indicate that E gene might be a virulence factor influencing replication level, tissue tropism and pathogenicity of SARS-CoV, suggesting that ΔE attenuated viruses are promising vaccine candidates. © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved., This work was supported by grants from the Ministry of Education and Science of Spain (BIO2004-00636), the European Community (DISSECT PROJECT, SP22-CT-2004-511060 and RiViGene PROJECT, SSPE-CT-2005-022639), Fort Dodge Veterinaria and the National Institutes of Health, USA (PO1 AI 060699).

The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) has been proposed to complete its final envelopment on cytoplasmic membranes prior to its release to the extracellular medium. The nature of these membranes and the mechanisms involved in virus envelopment and release are poorly understood. Here we show by immunogold-labelling and electron microscopy that CD63, a marker of multivesicular bodies (MVBs), is incorporated into the viral envelope, supporting the notion that HCMV uses endocytic membranes for its envelopment. We therefore investigated a possible role for the cellular endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) machinery in HCMV envelopment. Depletion of tumour suppressor gene 101 and ALIX/AIP1 with small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) in HCMV-infected cells did not affect virus production. In contrast, siRNAs against the vacuolar protein sorting 4 (VPS4) proteins silenced the expression of VPS4A and VPS4B, inhibited the sorting of epidermal growth factor to lysosomes, the formation of HIV Gag-derived virus-like particles and vesicular stomatitis virus infection, but enhanced the number of HCMV viral particles produced. Treatment of infected cells with protease inhibitors also increased viral production. These studies indicate that, in contrast to some enveloped RNA viruses, HCMV does not require the cellular ESCRT machinery to complete its envelopment.

In the mouse embryo, hematopoietic progenitor cells migrate to the fetal liver (FL) between gestational days (E) 9.5 and 10.5, where they rapidly expand to form the main fetal reservoir of hematopoietic cells. The embryonic megakaryocyte progenitors (MKPs) in the E11.5 FL were identified as CD49f(H) CD41(H) (and c-Kit(D)KDR(+)CD42(+)CD9(++)CD31(+)) cells, expressing several hepato-specific proteins. Unlike adult bone marrow megakaryocytes (MKs), embryonic MKPs were CD45(-) and represent an abundant population in the FL. The CD49f(H)CD41(H) MKPs purified by cytometry differentiated in vitro to produce proplatelets, independent of thrombopoietin stimulation, and they responded to stimulation with adenosine diphosphate, thrombin, and the PAR4 thrombin receptor-activating peptide. Moreover, after removing CD49f(H)CD41(H) MKPs from purified E11.5 FL hepatoepithelial-enriched cell preparations (c-Kit(D)CD45(-)Ter119(-)), the remaining CD49f(D) cells neither differentiated nor survived in vitro. Indeed, direct cell-to-cell contact between the CD49f(H) CD41(H) and CD49f(D) populations was required to promote the hepatocyte differentiation of CD49f(D) cells. The addition of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) and medium conditioned by E11.5 CD49f(H)CD41(H) MKPs produced a partial effect on CD49f(D) cells, inducing the formation of hepatoepithelial layers. This effect was abolished by anti-VEGF-A antibodies. Together, these findings strongly suggest that CD49f(H)CD41(H) MKPs are fundamental to promote FL development, as proposed in adult liver regeneration. The cells of the MK lineage present in the developing mouse embryo liver promote the growth of hepatoepithelial cells in vitro through VEGF-A signaling and may play a role in liver development in vivo. Copyright © 2012 American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases., Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (SAF2007-65265, SAF2009-12596); Instituto de Salud Carlos III; Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid; Fundación Ramón Areces

We have previously shown that in hypothalamic mixed neuronal-glial cultures both astrocytic shape and distribution of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) are modified by estradiol. In the present study, we have investigated whether or not the presence of neurons is necessary for these hormonal effects. In mixed neuronal-glial hypothalamic cultures the proportion of process-bearing GFAP-immunoreactive cells was significantly increased after treatment for 30 min with 10(-12) M 17 beta estradiol. This effect was present for at least 1 day and was reverted by incubating the cells in estradiol-free medium. Estradiol incubation resulted in a progressive differentiation of GFAP-immunoreactive cells from a flattened epithelioid morphology to bipolar, radial, and stellate shapes. This effect was not observed in pure hypothalamic glial cultures. Furthermore, incubation of hypothalamic glial cells with medium conditioned by estradiol-treated mixed hypothalamic cultures did not affect the shape of GFAP-immunoreactive astrocytes. In contrast, addition of hypothalamic neurons, but not cerebellar neurons or fibroblasts, to established hypothalamic glial cultures affected the development of estradiol sensitivity in astrocytes. These results indicate that estradiol induction of shape changes in hypothalamic astrocytes is not only dependent on the presence of hypothalamic neurons, but that physical contact between astrocytes and neurons is necessary for the manifestation of the effect of this hormone.

A deletion mutant of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) has been engineered by deleting the structural E gene in an infectious cDNA clone that was constructed as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC). The recombinant virus lacking the E gene (rSARS-CoV-ΔE) was rescued in Vero E6 cells. The recovered deletion mutant grew in Vero E6, Huh-7, and CaCo-2 cells to titers 20-, 200-, and 200-fold lower than the recombinant wild-type virus, respectively, indicating that although the E protein has an effect on growth, it is not essential for virus replication. No differences in virion stability under a wide range of pH and temperature were detected between the deletion mutant and recombinant wild-type viruses. Although both viruses showed the same morphology by electron microscopy, the process of morphogenesis seemed to be less efficient with the defective virus than with the recombinant wild-type one. The rSARS-CoV-ΔE virus replicated to titers 100- to 1,000-fold lower than the recombinant wild-type virus in the upper and lower respiratory tract of hamsters, and the lower viral load was accompanied by less inflammation in the lungs of hamsters infected with rSARS-CoV-ΔE virus than with the recombinant wild-type virus. Therefore, the SARS-CoV that lacks the E gene is attenuated in hamsters, might be a safer research tool, and may be a good candidate for the development of a live attenuated SARS-CoV vaccine., This work was supported by grants from the Ministry of Education and Science of Spain (BIO2004-00636), the European Community (Frame VI, DISSECT PROJECT, SP22-CT-2004-511060), and Fort Dodge Veterinaria. M.L.D. received a fellowship from the Ministry of Education and Science of Spain. This research was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, NIAID.

The envelope of alphavirus particles contains two major glycoproteins, E1 and E2, that participate in virus entry and assembly of new virus particles. Interactions between these glycoproteins determine their correct functioning. The expression of each glycoprotein in the absence of the other counterpart was achieved by means of electroporation of modified Sindbis virus (SV) genomes. In addition, in trans coexpression of both glycoproteins was also tested in BHK cells. Synthesis of the E1 glycoprotein alone gave rise to cell fusion after incubation in low-pH medium. In addition, expression of E1 in the absence of the E2 precursor, PE2 (E3+E2), induced the formation of cytoplasmic vacuoles in the transfected cells. The normal phenotype was recovered when PE2 was coexpressed in trans with E1. Moreover, this coexpression modified the processing of the PE2 glycoprotein. PE2 synthesized in the absence of E1 gave rise to a product, E2', whose migration was slower in SDS-polyacrylamide gel than that of genuine E2 from SV-infected cells. This alteration was corrected upon in trans coexpression of E1 and PE2. These results suggest that the two glycoproteins, E1 and PE2, interact after their expression from two separate SV genomes. Notably, BHK cells cotransfected with the two modified genomes produced SV particles. Our findings suggest that SV E1 and E2 synthesized in trans can interact with each other and participate together with capsid protein in the assembly of new virus particles.

We have recently purified a cholesteryl ester hydrolase (CEH) from rat liver microsomes. Antibodies raised against the purified protein specifically reacted with a 106-kd protein and neutralized 90% of the CEH activity of rat liver microsomes (J Lipid Res 1999;40:715-725). In this work we have used the anti-CEH antibody to study both the subcellular distribution of the protein in hepatocytes as well as its tissue-specific expression in rat. Western blotting of subcellular fractions obtained from isolated rat hepatocytes revealed that the immunoreactive 106-kd CEH was exclusively localized in microsomes. The antibody also recognized a 106-kd protein in microsomes from mouse and human liver but not from rat nonparenchymal liver cells. Confocal microscopy of HepG2 cells revealed that CEH immunoreactive material colocalized with calnexin, a marker of the endoplasmic reticulum. Furthermore, high-resolution immunoelectron microscopy of rat liver thin sections exclusively localized the CEH immunoreactivity to the endoplasmic reticulum of the hepatocyte. No CEH immunoreactivity was observed in microsomes derived from adrenal glands, ovaries, testis, pancreas, intestine, white adipose tissue, mammary gland, lung, spleen, brain, aorta, and macrophages. We report a CEH localized to the endoplasmic reticulum, erCEH, in the mammalian hepatocyte. The subcellular localization and tissue-restricted pattern of expression of erCEH suggests that it might have unique functions in liver cholesterol metabolism.

The cellular distribution of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) immunoreactivity was examined in the rat brain from embryonic day 15 to maturity. IGF-I immunoreactivity was found in the perikarya of neurons distributed along the entire extension of the neuronal tube in all the embryonic ages studied (E15, E17, E19 and E21). In E21 animals, the majority of immunoreactive neurons was located in the olfactory bulb, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, diencephalon, mesencephalic colliculi, trigeminal nuclei, trigeminal ganglion and in motoneurons of the brainstem. In 10- and 20-day-old rats, in addition to the above areas, IGF-I immunoreactivity was also observed in capillary walls, ependymal cells, choroid plexus, glial cells and most fiber paths. In postnatal ages, immunoreactivity in neuronal somas was mainly restricted to the cell nuclei. However, IGF-I immunoreactivity in the neuronal cytoplasm was observed in 20-day-old rats treated with colchicine while fiber paths and neuronal cell nuclei were negative in these animals. In the telencephalon of 20-day-old rats injected with colchicine, the most intense immunoreactive neurons were observed in the olfactory bulb, cerebral cortex, tenia tecta, hippocampus, islands of Calleja, septal nuclei, striatum, endopyriform nucleus and amygdala. Most diencephalic nuclei, the substantia nigra, the mesencephalic colliculi, Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex and several nuclei in mesencephalon, pons and medulla oblongata were also immunoreactive. In adult rats injected with colchicine, IGF-I immunoreactivity was located in the same areas as in 20-day-old rats. The number of immunoreactive cells and the intensity of the staining was reduced in adult rats as compared to that found in young postnatal animals. Glial cells were negative in adults. The distribution of IGF-I in the developing and mature rat brain supports the proposed roles of this peptide as a neuromodulator and neurotrophic factor.

Products derived from the activated immune system have been reported to modulate neuroendocrine function. In addition, a direct connection between neuroendocrine and immune responses to stress has recently been proposed. We now provide evidence that heterogenous lymphokine-containing supernatants from mitogen-stimulated rat spleen cells can stimulate both basal and corticotropin-induced corticosterone secretion from rat adrenal cells in an in vitro perifusion system. Moreover, thymosin α1, a 28-aminoacid residue peptide found both in thymus and lymphocyte-derived supernatants was also able to synergistically stimulate corticotropin-stimulated corticosterone release, without affecting basal corticosterone output in this same in vitro adrenal cell perifusion system. These results reinforce the suggestion about the existence of bidirectional interactions between the immune and neuroendocrine systems. They also indicate that this communication may occur directly at the adrenal gland level, a major effector site of the body's response to stress.

The in vivo effect of Inmunoferon (AM-3), a glycophosphopeptide of fungal origin, has been studied on T and B lymphocyte mitogenesis, Interleukin 2 (IL-2) synthesis and natural killer (NK) activity. Inmunoferon (30 mg/kg/day) was administered to several groups of mice 2, 3 or 7 days/week for 2 weeks, and its effect assessed on day 15 of treatment. Every treatment assayed enhanced IL-2 and NK activity in the spleen. The greater effect was produced by daily administration of the immunomodulator. No enhancement was found in mitogen-induced proliferation of T and B lymphocytes. Similar treatments with Inmunoferon enhanced NK activity in the spleens of mice treated with 250 mg/kg cyclophosphamide. In addition, mitogenic responses of T lymphocytes, but not IL-2 production, were also increased in immunosuppressed mice after treatment with the immunomodulator., The authors thank Dr. A. Portol& for helpful discussions, and Mrs Elena Cuesta and Maria Luisa de Pozo for technical assistance. J. M. R. and P. P are recipients of fellowships from C.S.1.C.M.T.R. is recipient of a fellowship from Caja de Ahorros y Monte de Piedad de Madrid. This work has been supported by Grant No. 0034C 05-81 from CAICYT (Spain) .