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Key Messages A reason COVID-19 has had such far-reaching impacts is it stems from multiple interconnected risks. The difficulties that policymakers face in managing related risks not only deepen vulnerabilities to COVID-19 but other planetary crises. Explicitly recognizing and acting to achieve the co-benefits of integrated air pollution, climate change, and health policies in the wake of COVID-19 can help policymakers address an air pollution-climate-health crisis. This brief outlines how the 'Triple R framework’—Response, Recovery and Redesign—can help align different government agency and other stakeholder interests behind the kind of integrated clean air, climate, and health policies that can deliver co-benefits. The framework calls for bringing together 1) immediate responses; 2) broader recovery policies backed by stimulus funding, and 3) forward-looking redesigns of infrastructures and institutions. Regional and international organizations could help policymakers achieve co-benefits by demonstrating the application of the 'Triple R framework in diverse contexts.

From the perspective of life cycle assessment (LCA), the development, construction, and operation of all kinds of new energy power generation technologies release greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This sparks concerns about the low-carbon nature of the new energy power generation technologies. Based on national and international literature review, this paper estimates and compares the GHG emission factors of traditional thermal power generation and new energy power generation technologies in China with the LCA approach. The GHG mitigation potential of new energy power generation technologies as substitution for traditional thermal power generation in China was evaluated, according to the objectives of new energy power generation of the national development planning. The results show that the GHG emission factors of new energy power generation are much lower than that of traditional thermal power generation even with LCA accounting, and the GHG mitigation potential of new energy substitution is huge. Citation Liu, S.-Q., X.-Q. Mao, Y.-B. Gao, et al., 2012: Life cycle assessment, estimation and comparison of greenhouse gas mitigation potential of new energy power generation in China. Adv. Clim. Change Res., 3(3), doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1248.2012.00147.

The transportation sector in China has joined the power generation and the steel and iron industries as a major CO2emission contributor. To determine which policy instrument(s) would be effective in reducing CO2emissions, various policy instruments which have been or are likely to be implemented in the near future in China are examined and compared in this study. These instruments include carbon tax, energy tax, fuel tax, clean energy vehicle subsidy, and a reduction on ticket prices. The CIMS model system is employed as the simulation vehicle to predict the emission dynamics of CO2and local air pollutants under business-as-usual and policy scenarios for the transportation sector of China from 2008 to 2050. The 2020 CO2 reduction target is also set according to the national carbon intensity reduction pledge of China. The policy instruments proposed in this research study can all help mitigate the CO2emission intensity of the Chinese transportation industry to different extents and bring about the co- benefits of local air pollutant reduction. Among these policy instruments,energy and fuel taxes, with the tax rates set, are the two most promising instruments for CO2emission intensity reduction to reach the 2020 carbon intensity reduction targets while subsidies are the least promising options. CO2tax could be an effective policy tool, but with the low tax rate considered in China, there is no way that the transportation sector would significantly contribute to achieving a desirable carbon intensity reduction. The CIMS model is applied to simulate and determine how CO2, energy, and fuel taxation can stimulate technology competition and substitution in the transportation sector of China and to ascertain how these taxes will influence energy consumption and pollutant emissions reduction.

China is currently facing a major air pollution challenge and must make significant reductions in its emissions of conventional air pollutants (AP) and greenhouse gases (GHGs). This is especially the case for the iron and steel sector, which is one of country's biggest polluters. To help find the best way to address this problem, this study has looked at policies that will help reduce both GHGs and APs at the same time - so called, co-control policies. The study finds that a carbon tax regime can reduce both carbon and local pollutants from the iron and steel sector (and so deliver maximum benefits). However, it finds that Command and Control and End of Pipe policies produce conflicting effects in the reduction of local pollutants and CO2. It recommends that a high-rate carbon tax should be brought in. This should be done within the framework of environmental tax reform and alongside other policy measures to reduce any negative impacts the move might have on businesses and society.

China is one of the world's leading users of coal and is therefore faced with serious coal-smoke pollution in urban areas. But pressure is mounting for a solution and this can only intensify following Beijing's successful bid for the 2008 Olympic games. To find just such a solution, this study has investigated the potential for natural gas as a cleaner fuel for China's cities. The study shows that natural gas has clear environmental and economic benefits over coal. The study found that the high cost of substituting natural gas for coal was the main factor hindering the adoption of the cleaner fuel. To overcome this hurdle, the researchers recommend a number of policy recommendations that would reduce the cost of natural gas and accelerate its take-up as fuel of choice.

As a result of its rapid economic development and large volume of coal burning, China is faced with serious coal-smoke pollution in urban areas. In large cities such as Beijing and Chongqing, people are clearly suffering the adverse health effects of coal-smoke pollution, with PM-10 and SO2 as the main pollutants. Natural gas, although not the dominant energy source in China, is becoming one of the most attractive clean substitutes for coal. On one hand, there is widespread disagreement and doubt about the rationale for burning natural gas instead of using it as a raw material in the chemical industry. On the other hand, the economic advantages of natural gas over clean-coal technology are crucial in deciding whether to promote the use of natural gas as a fuel. This research has four goals: Firstly, it quantifies the health damage caused by air pollution, particularly coal burining, in Beijing and Chongqing. Secondly, it explores the rationale behind using natural gas for municipal (residential and commercial) energy production through two comparison studies: (a) using natural gas as clean fuel versus using it as a chemical industry raw material, and (b) using natural gas versus clean coal technology. Thirdly, it performs a cost-benefit analysis of urban natural gas substitution projects in Beijing and Chongqing. The evidence indicates that in cities with the most concentrated population and economic activity, natural gas as the municipal energy source has clear environmental benefits in reducing the concentration of non-point and low-level air pollution.