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The advisory board's makeup tends to consist of professionals with domains of expertise relevant to the organization they serve. Organizations invite advisory board members to guide the organization's efforts over an extended period. Still, they do not have fiduciary, operational, or decision-making responsibilities for the organization in the way that a board of directors does. This article provides a framework for a behavior-analytic organization to (a) identify whether an advisory board would be feasible and beneficial, (b) establish an advisory board, and (c) engage and manage an advisory board to best leverage the unique skills and interests of the members. The article includes 2 examples of advisory boards to illustrate the suggested framework and recommendations.

Successfully working with families of children with autism requires technical behavior-analytic skills and critical interpersonal relationship-building skills. Taylor, LeBlanc, and Nosik (2018) suggested that many Board Certified Behavior Analysts might have been trained in graduate programs that focus primarily on conceptual and technical skills with little coverage of skills related to building therapeutic relationships. The current paper provides the results of an online survey of the precredential and postcredential training experiences of behavior analysts. The majority of behavior analysts surveyed indicated that they received no explicit didactic training or reading assignments on relationship-building skills in their graduate coursework in behavior analysis. Approximately half indicated that their practical experience supervisor provided guidance and mentoring on these skills. The majority of behavior analysts indicated that it is very important or extremely important that professional training programs develop formal training in this area.

This article describes the development of a system, the Ethics Network, designed to promote discussion of ethical issues in a human services organization. The system includes several core components, including people (e.g., leaders, ambassadors), tools (e.g., hotline, training modules), and resources (e.g., monthly talking points). Data from 6 years of hotline submissions were analyzed to identify the most common concerns, and the data were compared to the pattern of violation notices submitted to the Behavior Analyst Certification Board. Recommendations are provided for creating similar systems in other organizations.

Cox, Plavnick, and Brodhead (2020, "A Proposed Process for Risk Mitigation During the COVID-19 Pandemic") published a position statement in the emergency section of Behavior Analysis in Practice in response to the COVID-19 crisis. They argued against a blanket interpretation that in-person applied behavior analysis services for all patients should continue during the pandemic. They strongly argued that the risks of continued services are almost always prohibitive and that only in rare cases would the continuation of in-person services be warranted. Colombo, Wallace, and Taylor (2020, "An Essential Service Decisions Model for Applied Behavior Analytic Providers During Crisis") soon thereafter published a response to the article pointing out the potential dangers associated with the position of the article by Cox et al. They included a detailed decision model to assist providers in making nuanced and informed data-based decisions that provide the opportunity to honor the ethical responsibility for not abandoning patients. We echo the importance of the Colombo et al. response and add points of response centered on balanced ethical decision making informed by compassionate family-centered care.

Telehealth delivery of applied behavior analysis treatment has focused on supervision or staff and parent training, rather than the direct delivery of treatment to clients. The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) crisis had the potential to significantly disrupt access to direct treatment for individuals with autism. We report a sample of 17 cases that transitioned from in-person to telehealth delivery of treatment when shelter-in-place orders were issued. Of these cases, 76% of participants transitioned to technician-delivered telehealth services whereas the rest transitioned to a caregiver-implemented telehealth model. Participants continued to access a similar dosage of treatment hours per week in spite of the treatment model transition (in-person M = 12; telehealth M = 11) and maintained or improved correct independent responding across all targets from in-person treatment (M = 75%) to telehealth treatment (M = 80%). These findings provide initial evidence that some clients with autism benefit from technician-delivered telehealth services.

Behavior analysts spend a great deal of time in meetings regardless of their specific professional role (e.g., academic, practice, administration), so effective meeting skills are important. Meetings can serve a variety of important purposes if they are planned and led well. However, many people are not explicitly taught how to plan or lead meetings effectively. The purpose of this paper is to describe the common purposes of meetings and to provide recommendations and tools for planning and leading effective meetings.

The practice of behavior analysis has become a booming industry with growth to over 30,000 Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) who primarily work with children with autism and their families. Most of these BCBAs are relatively novice and have likely been trained in graduate programs that focus primarily on conceptual and technical skills. Successfully working with families of children with autism, however, requires critical interpersonal skills, as well as technical skills. As practitioners strive to respond efficiently and compassionately to distressed families of children with autism, technical skills must be balanced with fluency in relationship-building skills that strengthen the commitment to treatment. The current article provides an outline of important therapeutic relationship skills that should inform the repertoire of any practicing behavior analyst, strategies to cultivate and enhance those skills, and discussion of the potential effects of relationship variables on treatment outcomes.

This study examined the utility of a brief prerequisite assessment in predicting the subsequent effectiveness and rate of acquisition of mand training in each of three response modalities (sign, picture exchange, and vocalizations). Overall, the picture exchange was the most effective and efficient modality for acquiring the targeted mand. The vocal modality was the least effective except when the prerequisite assessment indicated that two-syllable vocal imitation was intact. The implications for selection of response modality for early mand training are discussed.

Conducting research in practice settings is the primary mechanism for establishing a strong foundation of evidence for clinical decision making. In behavior analysis, this type of research frequently originates from university-based systems that have established institutional review boards. Independent human service agencies that want to contribute applied research to the literature base that is clinically meaningful and conducted in an ethical fashion must establish a research review committee (RRC). The purpose of this article is to provide information and guidance for establishing and maintaining the activity of an RRC in a human service setting.

Discontinuous measurement involves dividing an observation into intervals and recording whether a behavior occurred during some or all of each interval (i.e., interval recording) or at the exact time of observation (i.e., momentary time sampling; MTS). Collecting discontinuous data is often easier for observers than collecting continuous data, but it also produces more measurement error. Smaller intervals (e.g., 5 s, 10 s, 15 s) tend to produce less error but may not be used in everyday practice. This study examined the most common intervals used by a large sample of data collectors and evaluated the effect of these intervals on measurement error. The most commonly used intervals fell between 2 and 5 min. We then analyzed over 800 sessions to evaluate the correspondence between continuous and discontinuous data at each commonly used interval. Intervals of 3 min or less produced the greatest correspondence, and MTS outperformed interval recording.

Effective supervision practices can facilitate the professional development of the supervisee, the continued growth of the supervisor, and the overall development of our field and its practice. In addition to individual supervision, many aspiring certificants also participate in group supervision experiences either as part of their academic practicum or as part of a supervised independent fieldwork experience. Group supervision can provide unique opportunities to establish critical professional repertoires such as peer feedback skills and public speaking skills. However, the quality of the group supervision experience is impacted by the supervisor’s arrangement of the components of the experience in order to maximize the effectiveness of these learning opportunities. This paper focuses on those critical supervision characteristics and suggests ways behavior analysts can optimize the group learning experience.

Several papers have reviewed the literature based on Skinner’s conceptual framework presented in his 1957 book, Verbal Behavior. These reviews have called for more research on the topic of verbal behavior generally and often for more research on particular verbal operants. For example, Sautter and LeBlanc (2006) urged the behavior-analytic community to conduct more research on the intraverbal because of the scant existing literature base at that time. In the current review, we replicate the procedures used by Sautter and LeBlanc focusing specifically on the intraverbal relation and on the literature published in the 10 years since their call for research. We summarize the publication themes, provide graphs of the trends and types of published articles, and offer ideas for future research specific to the intraverbal.

Practicing behavior analysts and behavior analysts in academic settings often provide supervision for young professionals who are pursuing certification as a behavior analyst. Effective supervision is critical to the quality of ongoing behavioral services, the professional development of the supervisee, the continued growth of the supervisor, and the overall development of our field and its practice. The Behavior Analyst Certification Board recently instituted several new requirements including training in supervisory practices prior to supervising those who are accruing hours toward the experience requirement for certification. However, few published resources exist to guide supervisor activities and recommended practice. The paper summarizes five overarching recommended practices for supervision. For each practice, detailed strategies and resources for structuring the supervisory experience are provided.

Grow and LeBlanc (2013) described practice recommendations for conducting conditional discrimination training with children with autism. One recommendation involved using a specially designed datasheet to provide the preset target stimulus for each trial along with counterbalancing the location of stimuli if a three-item array of comparison stimuli. This study evaluated whether the recommended data sheet would lead to higher procedural integrity of counterbalancing trials compared to a standard data sheet (i.e., targets and arrays are not pre-set). Forty behavior therapists from two provider agencies participated. Participants were randomly assigned to either the standard data sheet condition or the enhanced data sheet condition. Participants watched a short video on Grow and LeBlanc's practice recommendations for a matching task and an orientation to the datasheet for the assigned condition, and then implemented the matching task with a confederate serving in the role of the child with autism. The enhanced data sheet resulted in higher accuracy of implementation on counterbalancing than the standard data sheet, with the largest difference for rotation of the target stimulus across trials and for counterbalancing the placement of the correct comparison stimulus in the array.

The current study evaluated the effects of behavioral skills training (BST) on acquisition of basic computer skills using Microsoft Word®, Microsoft Excel®, and Microsoft PowerPoint® by a 15-year-old male diagnosed with autism. A concurrent multiple-baseline design across computer programs (i.e., Word®, Excel®, and PowerPoint®) was used to evaluate the effects of BST on the acquisition of basic computer skills. BST was successful in teaching the participant to learn basic functions in each of the three programs, and he was able to use the programs to complete schoolwork independently following completion of the study.

Practicing behavior analysts frequently assess and treat problem behavior as part of their ongoing job responsibilities. Effective measurement of problem behavior is critical to success in these activities because some measures of problem behavior provide more accurate and complete information about the behavior than others. However, not every measurement procedure is appropriate for every problem behavior and therapeutic circumstance. We summarize the most commonly used measurement procedures, describe the contexts for which they are most appropriate, and propose a clinical decision-making model for selecting measurement produces given certain features of the behavior and constraints of the therapeutic environment.

The rapid growth in the number of behavior analysts and aspiring behavior analysts creates an imperative for effective and efficient supervisory practices. Many behavior analysts receive little to no explicit instruction and mentoring in supervision practices while they are in training themselves. Those behavior analysts may then be expected to provide supervision for a range of individuals soon after graduation and certification and throughout the remainder of their career. The papers included in this special issue offer guidance for establishing and maintaining supervisory relationships, understanding the importance of each of the ethical guidelines for supervision, structuring group supervision experiences, managing problems that can arise during the course of a supervisory relationship, and arranging models of supervision within human service organizations.

Receptive language refers to responding appropriately to another person's spoken language. Most curricula dedicate a proportion of early intervention to developing receptive language skills. The specific terms used to refer to the receptive language programs and the recommendations for teaching such skills vary considerably across the early intervention curricula. The present paper will provide a conceptual analysis of the desired controlling variables for different receptive language programs, teaching recommendations, a brief review of the literature to substantiate the teaching recommendations, and a discussion of the potential negative effects of deviating from the recommendations.

Little applied research focuses on teaching feminine hygiene skills to females with disabilities, yet this is a common clinical concern. The current study demonstrates the use of chaining to teach two young females with autism spectrum disorder feminine hygiene skills. A nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants was utilized, and the results indicate that both participants acquired the skill. Generalization probes with one participant indicated the skill generalized to novel stimuli.

Linda A. LeBlanc, Ph.D., BCBA-D, MI Licensed Psychologist, is the Executive Director of Research and Clinical Services at Trumpet Behavioral Health. She received her Ph.D. in child clinical psychology in 1996 from Louisiana State University and completed her internship and postdoctoral fellowship at the Kennedy Krieger Institute and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. She served as a professor on the psychology faculties at Claremont McKenna College (1997–1999), Western Michigan University (1999–2008), and Auburn University (2009–2012) before becoming the Executive Director at Trumpet. She has served on the boards of directors of several national and regional professional associations and is a Fellow of the Association for Behavior Analysis International. She has served as an associate editor of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Behavior Analysis in Practice, and the Analysis of Verbal Behavior and Education and Treatment of Children and has authored many articles and book chapters on behavioral treatment of autism, technology-based behavioral interventions, behavioral gerontology, and system development in human services (Fig. 1).

Discrete trial teaching (DTT) procedures have proven effective in teaching language to children with autism. Discrete trial teaching uses a highly structured, fast-paced format of instruction that is typically conducted in a one-to-one situation at a desk or table with minimal distractions. We compared this traditional model of DTT to a version of DTT in which instruction was embedded within the context of a more naturalistic, activity-based environment. However, all of the other characteristics of DTT (e.g., pacing, tight stimulus control, targets selected by the teacher) were retained. Receptive discriminations were taught to 2 4-year-old boys, diagnosed with autism in traditional or embedded DTT. Results showed that for both boys, traditional and embedded DTT were equally effective and efficient. Additionally, measures were collected on participant affect and a concurrent-chains preference evaluation was used to determine which teaching procedure was preferred by the participants. The two procedures produced similar levels of positive and negative affect and were equally preferred by 1 participant while embedded DTT produced more positive affect and was more preferred by the other.

Tact training is a common element of many habilitative programs for individuals with developmental disabilities. A commonly recommended practice is to include a supplemental question (e.g., "What is this?") during training trials for tacts of objects. However, the supplemental question is not a defining feature of the tact relation, and prior research suggests that its inclusion might sometimes impede tact acquisition. The present study compared tact training with and without the supplemental question in terms of acquisition and maintenance. Two of 4 children with autism acquired tacts more efficiently in the object-only condition; the remaining 2 children acquired tacts more efficiently in the object + question condition. During maintenance tests in the absence of the supplemental question, all participants emitted tacts at end-of-training levels across conditions with no differential effect observed between training conditions.

Research on functional response classes has applied significance because less severe forms of problem behavior have been found to co-occur with more severe forms. In addition, the most severe forms of problem behavior are sometimes targeted for intervention without monitoring other less severe forms. In such cases, it is unknown whether and how untreated forms of problem behavior covary with the targeted behaviors. The present study employed a translational procedure (with button presses as the target behavior) to investigate response covariation under noncontingent reinforcement with typically developing preschoolers. The results indicated that noncontingent reinforcement was generally effective in decreasing all response class members when only one member was targeted.

A growing workforce of behavior analysts provides services to individuals with autism and intellectual disabilities as legislative initiatives have spurred a growth of funding options to support these services. Though many opportunities currently exist for serving individuals with autism, the growing demand for these services may wane or, at some point, the growth in service providers will meet that demand. Other consumer groups could benefit from behavior analytic services, but typically have limited access to qualified providers. Individuals with dementia and traumatic brain injury are used as example consumer groups to illustrate the necessary tasks for a behavior analyst to expand their scope of practice to a new population. This paper provides strategies for developing competence and creating employment opportunities with new consumer groups.

We examined whether typically developing preschoolers could learn to use a problem-solving strategy that involved self-prompting with intraverbal chains to provide multiple responses to intraverbal categorization questions. Teaching the children to use the problem-solving strategy did not produce significant increases in target responses until problem solving was modeled and prompted. Following the model and prompts, all participants showed immediate significant increases in intraverbal categorization, and all prompts were quickly eliminated. Use of audible self-prompts was evident initially for all participants, but declined over time for 3 of the 4 children. Within-session response patterns remained consistent with use of the problem-solving strategy even when self-prompts were not audible. These findings suggest that teaching and prompting a problem-solving strategy can be an effective way to produce intraverbal categorization responses.

The substantial demand for behavior-analytic treatment of early childhood autism has been associated with rapid dissemination of treatment procedures to practitioners and caregivers. This level of demand could plausibly induce premature dissemination of treatments that do not yet have sufficient empirical support. We argue that this might have happened with the use of fluency training for learners with autism and identify four areas of research that are necessary to ensure that dissemination efforts are better matched to the available empirical support for this instructional strategy.

Although the awareness of autism in the general public has increased significantly over the past 20 years, much of the widely disseminated information is not fully grounded in scientific fact. In The Science and Fiction of Autism (2005), Laura Schreibman addresses a series of debates and controversies in areas ranging from diagnostic practices and etiological theories to effective clinical practices. This book provides an overview of the field of autism that is suitable for well-educated parents and new professionals in the field.

Three children with autism were taught abduction-prevention skills using behavioral skills training with in situ feedback. All children acquired the skills, which were maintained at a 1-month follow-up assessment. In addition, 1 of the children demonstrated the skills during a stimulus generalization probe in a community setting.

The development of high quality user-friendly video capture and editing equipment at relatively low costs has resulted in wonderful opportunities to incorporate video technology into behavioral interventions for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) (Goldsmith & LeBlanc, 2004). The most common strategy for incorporating video into behavioral intervention is video modeling (VM), which involves having a learner watch a videotape (rather than a live demonstration) of a person correctly performing the target behavior followed by an opportunity to imitate (Delano, 2007). Other video-based behavioral interventions (VBIs) include video-based feedback and video-based discrimination training. In video feedback, a learner and teacher watch video footage of the learner's performance while the teacher provides consequences for appropriate exemplars (e.g., praise or other reinforcers) and for non-exemplars (e.g., corrective feedback and suggestion for alternative behavior) (Thiemann & Goldstein, 2001). In discrimination training, the learner watches video footage that may or may not show their own performance and determines which behavior or category of behavior is exemplified in each scene (e.g., rude or polite, friendly joke or bullying). In the past 20 years, a substantial research literature has amassed to document the beneficial effects of VM for teaching a wide variety of skills to individuals with ASD (Bellini & Akullian, 2007; Delano, 2007). Recently, my students and I coded approximately 40 published studies on VM with individuals with ASD during a 20-year time span (1987-2007) (Dillon, LeBlanc & Geiger, 2009). Over half of those studies targeted social behavior (including social language) (Charlop-Christy, Le & Freeman, 2000; Geiger, LeBlanc, Dillon, & Bates, 2010; Nikopoulos, & Keenan, 2003; Sherer, et al., 2001), with self-help/daily living skills (e.g., Charlop-Christy et al., 2000; Keen, Brannigan, & Cuskelly, 2007) as the second most frequently targeted area. Three of the studies in our special issue represent diversity in the skills targeted with individuals with ASD. Allen, Wallace, Renes, Bowen and Burke demonstrate how video modeling could be used to teach a vocational skill to a young adult with ASD. Allen et al. used a commercial video training tape to teach a man with ASD to effectively use a WalkAround[TM] to interact with customers in a retail warehouse as part of his employment preparation. Given the growing importance of focusing on transition to adulthood and employment opportunities, I am delighted to have the needs of adults with ASD represented in our special issue. Blum-Dimaya, Reeve, Reeve and Hoch also illustrate how video modeling can be used in conjunction with gaming technology to teach modern, age-appropriate leisure skills using a multi-component package. Blum-Dimaya et al. taught children with ASD to play Guitar Hero II[TM] and conceptualized the game-embedded visual displays as a form of simultaneous video modeling where the individual has the opportunity to imitate during, rather than after, the streaming video footage. Not only does this study demonstrate a strategy for teaching a very socially valid target, but it also illustrates that when we categorize our VM interventions using a functional rather than topographical approach, we may actually discover new tools for VBIs. Finally, Charlop, Dennis, Carpenter, and Greenberg demonstrate the effects of video modeling for teaching the most complex multi-component social behavior studied to date. Their participants were able to learn to emit social language responses that were accurate with respect to content, intonation, accompanying gesture, and accompanying facial expressions during their comments about ongoing events. In addition to demonstrating the effectiveness of video modeling, researchers have also examined the characteristics of the VM or the video presentation that are most important to facilitate skill acquisition (e. …

Aphasia is an acquired language impairment that affects over 1 million individuals, the majority of whom are over age 65 (Groher, 1989). This disorder has typically been conceptualized within a cognitive neuroscience framework, but a behavioral interpretation of aphasia is also possible. Skinner's (1957) analysis of verbal behavior proposes a framework of verbal operants that can be integrated with the work of Sidman (1971) and Haughton (1980) to describe the language difficulties individuals with aphasia experience. Using this synthesis of models, we propose a new taxonomy of aphasia based on the observed deficit relations. Assessment and treatment implications are also discussed.

Psychological interventions for migraines typically include biofeedback training, stress-management training, or relaxation training and are implemented without consideration of environmental variables that might maintain migraines or complaints of migraines. An adolescent with daily reports of migraines that negatively impacted school attendance participated in therapy with his parents. A functional assessment of migraine complaints was conducted with the participant and his mother. After developing a hypothesis that the function of migraine complaints was escape from tasks and school, differential reinforcement and escape extinction were implemented. Results indicate that migraine reports can be successfully treated using a function-based intervention even when standard psychological interventions were ineffective, illustrating the importance of considering the function of a problem rather than treating based upon the topography.

Structured choice-making procedures, referred to as preference assessments, have been frequently used to identify reinforcers for individuals with developmental disabilities; however, few studies have examined the use of preference assessments with older adults with dementia. This study evaluated the utility of 4 versions of a 2-choice preference assessment for identifying items and activities associated with high levels of engagement in clients at an adult day care program. The same 8 items were presented in 4 formats (ie, verbal, pictorial, textual, tangible), and items from each assessment were ranked with respect to the subsequent level of participant engagement with each item. Correlations were computed between the preference hierarchy and subsequent engagement levels for each format. The format with the highest correlation coefficient was subsequently used in interventions in which frequent structured choice opportunities were presented throughout the day to increase engagement. For 3 of 4 participants, the vocal modality was optimal, while the tangible modality was optimal for the fourth. Moderate to substantial increases in engagement were observed for all participants when structured choices were offered. Implications for activity engagement in adult day care programs are discussed.

In Verbal Behavior, Skinner (1957) provided a conceptual framework and taxonomy for the controlling variables of language that defined independent verbal operants by their functional relations to antecedents and consequences (rather than by topography or meaning). Although professional interest in this area has recently increased within the behavior analytic community, Skinner's conceptual framework may not yet have fully impacted the experimental literature. This quantitative review of the literature examined the studies on verbal behavior that were empirical in nature, concerned with human verbal behavior, and addressed at least one verbal operant (e.g., mand, tact, echoic, autoclitic, and/or intraverbal behavior) within the experiment. The results of this review suggest that a growing body of research exists to support many of the tenets of Skinner's conceptualization and taxonomy but many areas of verbal behavior research have yet to be addressed. Continued research in this area is crucial for the development and implementation of effective verbal behavior interventions for people with disabilities.

Nine behavior-analytic studies, each reporting data for a single participant, have shown that bizarre speech can be maintained by social reinforcement. In the current study, we controlled for a possible referral bias in this literature by including nonreferred participants with dual diagnoses. Functional analyses identified attention functions for 2 participants and nonsocial functions for the others. Noncontingent reinforcement decreased the bizarre speech of both participants who displayed attention-maintained bizarre speech.

The authors comment on Drash and Tudor's operant theory of autism. Concerns with the theory's face validity and empirical support are presented, along with concerns about four aspects of the theory.

A growing number of studies have investigated diverse applications of technology-based interventions with children with autism. The purpose of this paper is to review the growing empirical support for the efficacy of technology-based interventions with children with autism and to recommend future directions for research. This review will focus on five examples of technology introduced as a temporary instructional aid to be removed once the goal of behavior change has been met: (a) tactile and auditory prompting devices, (b) video-based instruction and feedback, (c) computer-aided instruction, (d) virtual reality, and (e) robotics. Future directions for research and practice with each technology are discussed. Keywords: autism; technology-based interventions; computer-aided instruction; virtual reality; robotics. ********** A growing number of studies have investigated diverse applications of technology-based interventions with children with autism. The popularity of technology in the field of psychology is evidenced by the development of new journals in the area (e.g., the Journal of Special Education Technology, the Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, the Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, etc.). In addition, clinical psychology journals are recognizing the importance of technology in service delivery and devoting special issues to the topic (e.g., Newman, 2004). Parents and clinicians regularly report that children with autism are drawn to technological devices and researchers have noted the importance of devising treatments that take advantage of this fascination (Colby, 1973). The purpose of this paper is to review the growing empirical support for the efficacy of technology-based interventions with children with autism and to recommend future directions for research. A review of technology-based interventions must first clarify the use of the word technology. The term is broadly defined as "the practical application of knowledge" or "the specialized aspects of a particular field of endeavor" (Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 1994, p. 1210). This broad definition encompasses virtually any information or object that has been used in application to a field of study. For example, the application of stimulus control is technology to a behavioral clinician. A more specific use of the term refers to use of mechanical or electromechanical processes that often increase productivity and reduce or eliminate manual operations or operations done by older technologies. In the twenty-first century, technology commonly denotes a variety of popular electromechanical devices such as cell phones, video recording equipment, and hand-held, desktop, and laptop personal computers. It is the use of these tools with children with autism that will be the subject of this review paper. Some technology-based interventions are designed for indefinite use as an assistive tool (e.g., voice-output augmentative communication devices, microswitches, etc.) while others are introduced as a temporary instructional aid to be removed once the goal of behavior change has been met. This review will focus on five examples of the second category: tactile and auditory prompting devices, video-based instruction and feedback, computer-aided instruction, virtual reality, and robotics. Research support for the use of each technological advancement with children with autism will be reviewed, and directions for future research and practical application will be discussed. Mechanical Prompts Individuals with autism often need external stimulus prompts to initiate, maintain, or terminate a behavior. Commonly used prompts include vocal, gestural, physical, written/pictorial, and signed prompts, and each modality has been demonstrated effective for multiple purposes (MacDuff, Krantz, & McClannahan, 2001). Technological advancements in the last decade have created cost-effective automated prompting devices with the ability to deliver the same level of prompting with less human interaction and obtrusiveness and often less human effort in managing prompt delivery (e. …

Behavioral interventions that include reinforcement as a treatment component have proven quite effective in decreasing problem behavior in children and individuals with developmental disabilities. These interventions are typically initiated with frequent, immediate reinforcement to increase the likelihood of success and schedules may then be thinned to more clinically manageable schedules to promote generalization and maintenance of treatment effects. Immediate reinforcement can also be delayed to the same effect. However, there are currently no specific procedural guidelines for decreasing the intensity of effective behavioral interventions. The current paper examines several conceptual issues regarding procedures for decreasing the intensity of behavioral interventions and presents clinical and research suggestions. ********** Behavioral interventions have proven quite effective in decreasing problem behaviors of children, especially those with developmental disabilities (Carr, Coriaty, & Dozier, 2000; Carr, Yarbrough, & Langdon 1997; Watson & Gresham, 1998). Many behavioral interventions used to reduce behavior incorporate reinforcement as a treatment component in the form of differential reinforcement of appropriate behavior (DRA), differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) or noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) (Carr, Coriaty, Wilder et al., 2000; LeBlanc, Le, & Carpenter, 2000). In an attempt to increase the likelihood of success, such interventions typically involve frequent and immediate delivery of high-quality reinforcers when treatment is initiated (Hagopian, Fisher, & Legacy, 1994; Miltenberger, 1997). Once the intervention has proven effective, the intensity of the intervention is gradually decreased over time by either reducing the frequency of reinforcement or implementing a delay to reinforcement. Interventions of decreased intensity are beneficial for several reasons. First, frequent, and immediate delivery of reinforcers often is unmanageable in natural settings (Fisher et al, 2000). For example, a parent may not be able to provide continuous attention for their child during each visit to the doctor or during an important telephone conversation. Second, less labor intensive interventions may result in greater overall treatment integrity. Interventions that are labor intensive or attract undue attention in natural settings are less likely to be implemented consistently than interventions that appear more natural and are easier to implement. Third, less intensive interventions characteristically are more similar to naturally occurring contingencies than highly intensive interventions, promoting generalization of treatment effects to everyday settings (Stokes & Baer, 1977). Unfortunately, several problems may arise when attempting to decrease the intensity of behavioral interventions. First, treatment gains may be lost as interventions become less intensive. For example, Hagopian, Fisher, Sullivan, Acquisto, and LeBlanc (1998) found that effective functional communication training with extinction interventions failed to remain effective in 60% of cases when schedule thinning or delay to reinforcement was initiated. Second, there are no accepted algorithms or even general strategies that identify specifically how the intensity of interventions should be reduced. The intensity of interventions can be manipulated along several dimensions, including the frequency of reinforcement, the delay of reinforcement, and the characteristics (e.g., magnitude, quality) of the reinforcing events. Researchers have failed to compare the effects of altering these dimensions. Most studies that have systematically examined strategies for reducing the intensity of reinforcement-based interventions for reducing behavior have manipulated the frequency of reinforcement (Lalli, Casey & Kates, 1997; Piazza, Moes, & Fisher, 1996). Even in this area, little evidence exists to guide how quickly we should decrease intensity, or even what the initial intensity of the intervention (i. …

Several important behavioral intervention models have been developed for teaching language to children with autism and two are compared in this paper. Professionals adhering to Skinner's conceptualization of language refer to their curriculum and intervention programming as applied verbal behavior (AVB). Those primarily focused on developing and using strategies embedded in natural settings that promote generalization refer to their interventions as naturalistic teaching approaches (NTAs). The purpose of this paper is to describe each approach and discuss similarities and differences in terms of relevant dimensions of stimulus control. The discussion includes potential barriers to translation of terminology between the two approaches that we feel can be overcome to allow better communication and collaboration between the two communities. Common naturalistic teaching procedures are described and a Skinnerian conceptualization of these learning events is provided.

Escape from instructional activities is a common maintaining variable for problem behavior and a number of effective treatments have been developed for this function. Each of these treatments has characteristics that make them optimal for certain environments and clients, but less optimal for others. We summarize the most commonly researched function-based treatments for escape-maintained behavior, describe the contexts for which they are most appropriate, and provide a clinical model for selecting treatments based on client characteristics and the constraints of the therapeutic environment.

Numerous studies have used functional analyses to prescribe interventions for severe behavior disorders. The majority of these studies have focused on behavior that is clearly maintained by socially mediated reinforcement, such as contingent access to attention, tangibles, or escape from instructional demands. However, a significant proportion of functional analyses do not yield conclusive results. We examined interventions for 3 children with severe disabilities following inconclusive functional analyses. First, preferred stimuli were identified for each child via a stimulus preference assessment. Second, a functional analysis was conducted for 2 of the 3 children. High rates of aberrant behavior were seen even (if not especially) in no-interaction sessions. The 3rd child was observed for several consecutive no-interaction sessions; behavior persisted in this condition. Third, interventions based on environmental enrichment were analyzed in an analogue setting. For all of the children, environmental enrichment decreased aberrant behavior if preferred stimuli were used in the procedure. To obtain further reductions in aberrant behavior, explicit reinforcement of toy play was required for 2 children, and a brief (5-s) time-out was necessary with 1 child. Finally, effects of treatment carried over to the school or home environment following teacher or family training. Results are discussed in the context of basic reinforcement principles and future directions for research.

Cognitive impairment represents a common mental health problem in community-dwelling and institutionalized older adults, and the prevalence increases with age. Multidisciplinary teams are often asked to assess cognitive and functional impairment in this population. The Cognitive Assessment of Minnesota was created by occupational therapists for this purpose and is frequently used, but has not been extensively validated. This study examined the performance of the CAM and compared it to the MMSE with 113 outpatient clinic patients over the age of 60. Subgroups were established based on scores on a depression inventory to determine if the presence of depressed mood altered the relationship between the measures. Both measures demonstrated good internal consistency. The overall correlation between the two measures was high, statistically significant and remained high regardless of depression status. We offer recommendations about the utility of each measure in screening cognitive functioning for older adults.

It has been suggested that verbally sophisticated individuals engage in a series of precurrent behaviors (e.g., covert intraverbal behavior, grouping stimuli, visual imagining) to solve problems such as answering questions (Palmer, 1991; Skinner, 1953). We examined the effects of one problem solving strategy--visual imagining--on increasing responses to intraverbal categorization questions. Participants were 4 typically developing preschoolers between the ages of 4 and 5 years. Visual imagining training was insufficient to produce a substantial increase in target responses. It was not until the children were prompted to use the visual imagining strategy that a large and immediate increase in the number of target responses was observed. The number of prompts did not decrease until the children were given a rule describing the use of the visual imagining strategy. Within-session response patterns indicated that none of the children used visual imagining prior to being prompted to do so and that use of the strategy continued after introduction of the rule. These results were consistent for 3 of 4 children. Within-session response patterns suggested that the 4th child occasionally imagined when prompted to do so, but the gains were not maintained. The results are discussed in terms of Skinner's analysis of problem solving and the development of visual imagining.

We assessed preference for video or in vivo modeling using a concurrent-chains arrangement with 3 children with autism. The two modeling conditions produced similar acquisition rates and no differential selection (i.e., preference) for all 3 participants.

We evaluated a multiple schedule in which the extinction (S-) components were signaled overtly by a black lanyard and the reinforcement (S+) components were not correlated with any programmed stimuli in developing stimulus control over the high-rate social-approach responses of an adult with mental retardation. Responding was consistently low in the presence of the S- and consistently high when the lanyard was absent (i.e., the S+ condition). Component durations were thinned successfully to a level that was manageable for caregivers.

We taught 3 children with autism to raise a hand or keep both hands down depending on their status (e.g., having heard a target word, possessing a specific item) using modeling, prompting, and reinforcement. All 3 children acquired accurate hand-raising skills in response to progressively more difficult discrimination tasks during group instruction. The implications for preparing children for general education settings are discussed.

Wandering is a difficult-to-manage behavior problem for individuals with cognitive impairments that can jeopardize safety if an individual enters a hazardous area or becomes lost. This study investigated the effects of a cloth barrier on entry into an unsafe area. The cloth barrier reduced entry into the restricted area and had high treatment acceptability.