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Kelvin–Helmholtz waves can be observed frequently at the near-Earth magnetopause and play an important role in the transport of particles, momentum, and energy from the solar wind to the magnetosphere. This work analyzes the occurrence of Kelvin–Helmholtz instability (KHI) at lunar distance magnetopause, which has not been thoroughly studied currently based on Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence, and Electrodynamics of the Moon's Interaction with the Sun satellite observations, and it also investigates the effect of the upstream solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). Statistical results show that (1) the occurrence rate is about 15% of the time at lunar distance, lower than at the flank magnetopause, and (2) the occurrence rate decreases with the magnetoacoustic Mach number, Alfvén Mach number, solar wind velocity, and dynamic pressure but only shows a slightly positive correlation with solar wind density. Unlike at the dayside magnetopause, the occurrence rate of KHI diminishes as the solar wind velocity increases at the lunar distance magnetopause, and (3) the occurrence rate decreases with IMF amplitude and is influenced by IMF orientation. As a function of the IMF clock angle, the occurrence rate reaches its maximum at ∼24% when the clock angle is zero. The statistical results are basically consistent with the currently accepted linear theory of KHI, except for a lower rate for higher-speed solar wind. This work contributes to understanding the excitation and evolution of KHI along the magnetopause and plasma transport process in the tail magnetopause.

The Lawn Dart program, a proliferated mesh network of security commodities staged across the lunar surface, will promote a stable and sustainable space operating environment. Lawn Darts will deploy as probes from lunar orbit around the surface of the Moon to provide an Internet of Things and a power network for other operational assets such as rovers, people, and Moon bases. This capability and its execution raises questions about international law and geopolitical concerns related to territorial claims on the lunar surface and the planned organization of space activities by conflicting parties, but the program is compliant with the current framework of law and policy. The Lawn Dart program is essential for providing security for lunar assets, protecting mission data against adversaries, and laying the groundwork for NASA and European Space Agency exploration mission success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses information about amino acids provided by the Apollo lunar space program in the United States. It appears that the moon had a lawn of organic compounds that were destroyed by solar radiation. The findings from the moon have clarified another inference from the electric discharge experiments, which contained free amino acids at the end of the reaction. If the view is correct that the surface of the moon is baked-out with no residual organic compound of its own, the amino acid precursors represent the most complex known carbon compounds accumulated by an inert body in the solar system. The carbon compounds on the moon and in the meteorites have arisen by different cosmophysical processes.

The article comments on the theories of lunar formation and manned landings as basis about the origin of the moon. According to the author, manned lunar landing will yield information enabling investigators to decide between the other two theories, which is the theory of rotational breakup of the Earth and the capture theory. He also emphasizes that returned samples from the moon casts light on the first billion years of the Earth's history. In addition, the author also stresses that the data on the moon might give scientists a rise to a new and successful approach to the problem of the origin of the solar system.

The article comments on the resemblance between the discoveries in Columbia and moon landing by U.S. astronauts. According to the author, the purely scientific aspects of the project could not by themselves have commanded state support on any significant scale if it were not for the fact that both were tied at the hip-bone to political-economic-military aims. He stresses that eventhough there are certain resemblances, the Columbian discoveries and the Apollo program differ profoundly in many fundamental ways.

The article discusses several space program and problems regarding the origin of the moon. A professor suggested that the recent data from the Lunar Orbiter photo satellites and the Surveyor landers show that the moon has been colder and less plastic throughout its history than the Earth. The chemical composition of the Moon which was secured by surveyors V, VI, and VII constituted important data with regard to its surface. Various suggestions about the origin of the moon are also emphasized in the article.

The article focuses on the national goal of the U.S. to land Americans on the moon and returning them safely to earth. In order to reach this goal, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration on February 25, 1963, requested for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1963 a budget of $5.7 billion, $2 billion more than for the previous fiscal year and $5 billion more than was spent on space during Dr. James Killian's tenure in the early days of the space age. Given the complexities of such vast endeavors, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration has already been planning ahead for missions beyond the lunar landing.

Abstract Returning to the Moon has kept gaining interest lately in the scientific community as a mandatory step for answering a cohort of key scientific questions. This paper presents a novel Lunar mission design to demonstrate enabling technologies for deep-space exploration, in accordance with the Global Exploration Roadmap and the National Research Council. This mission, named ALCIDES, takes advantage of some of the systems that are currently under development as a part of the HERACLES exploration architecture: these include the Orion module, the Space Exploration Vehicle, the Boeing Reusable Lander, the Ariane 6, the Falcon Heavy, the Space Launch System, as well as the Evolvable Deep-Space Habitat placed in EML2. A consistent part of the efforts in designing the ALCIDES mission accounts for innovative exploration scenarios: by analysing state of the art in robotics and planetary exploration, we introduce a mission architecture in which robots and humans collaborate to achieve several tasks, both autonomously and through cooperation. During this mission, high-performance mobility, extravehicular activity and habitation capabilities would be carried out and implemented. This project aims to demonstrate the human capability to live and work in the Lunar environment through the development of a long-term platform. We selected the Amundsen-Ganswindt basin as the landing site for multiple reasons: the possible presence of permanently shadowed regions, its position within the South Pole and its proximity to the Schrödinger basin. The main objectives of the ALCIDES mission are to study the Lunar cold trap volatiles, to gain understanding of the Lunar highlands geology through sampling and in-situ measurements and to study Human-Robotic interactions. In addition, factors such as psychology, legal issues and outreach regarding this mission were also considered. In particular, four traverses connecting the Amundsen crater with the Schrödinger basin were proposed, three of which to be performed by a tele-operated rover, and the remaining one to be carried out by a human crew with rover assistance. During these traverses, the rover will collect samples from several points of interest as well as perform in-situ measurements with a suite of instruments on board, helping to locate a convenient place for future human habitation. The ALCIDES mission results will help the scientific community to better understand the Moon and to take advantage of its resources for future space exploration. Gaining this knowledge will allow us to move forward in the development of systems and capabilities for manned missions to Mars and beyond. Highlights • International collaboration is a key point for ambitious space programs. • Human-Robot interaction is crucial for mission success and increasing performance. • Scientific goals should be the main objectives of space exploration missions. • Technologies to allow Lunar long-term research base are soon to be available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this work is the preliminary design of a low-ΔV transfer from an initial elliptical orbit around Jupiter into a final circular orbit around the moon Europa. This type of trajectory represents an excellent opportunity for a low-cost mission to Europa, accomplished through a small orbiter, as in the proposed Europa Tomography Probe mission, a European contribution to NASA’s Europa Multiple-Flyby Mission (or Europa Clipper). The mission strategy is based on the v∞ leveraging concept, and the use of resonant orbits to exploit multiple gravity-assist from the moon. Possible sequences of resonant orbits are selected with the help of the Tisserand graph. Suitable trajectories are provided by an optimization code based on the parallel running of several differential evolution algorithms. Different solutions are finally compared in terms of propellant consumption and flight time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses about the major problems in space and scientific exploration programs in the U.S. In this report, authors Philip M. Smith and Rodney W. Johnson emphasizes the goals of the lunar and Antarctic exploration. The authors believe that comparison of the lunar exploration program with the Antarctic exploration will yield a number of analogies, primarily in terms of how such an activity might most logically proceed. Furthermore, they indicated that science in both explorations have similar objectives, with each focusing on the geosciences.

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) includes two identical Narrow Angle Cameras (NAC) that acquire meter scale imaging. Stereo observations are acquired by imaging from two or more orbits, including at least one off-nadir slew. Digital terrain models (DTMs) generated from the stereo observations are controlled to Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) elevation profiles. With current processing methods, digital terrain models (DTM) have absolute accuracies commensurate than the uncertainties of the LOLA profiles (~10 m horizontally and ~1 m vertically) and relative horizontal and vertical precisions better than the pixel scale of the DTMs (2 to 5 m). The NAC stereo pairs and derived DTMs represent an invaluable tool for science and exploration purposes. We computed slope statistics from 81 highland and 31 mare DTMs across a range of baselines. Overlapping DTMs of single stereo sets were also combined to form larger area DTM mosaics, enabling detailed characterization of large geomorphic features and providing a key resource for future exploration planning. Currently, two percent of the lunar surface is imaged in NAC stereo and continued acquisition of stereo observations will serve to strengthen our knowledge of the Moon and geologic processes that occur on all the terrestrial planets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Chang’E-5 mission is the third phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program and will collect and return lunar samples. After sampling, the Orbiter and the ascent vehicle will rendezvous and dock, and both spacecraft will require high precision orbit navigation. In this paper, we present a novel tracking mode—Four-way lunar Lander–Orbiter tracking that possibly can be employed during the Chang’E-5 mission. The mathematical formulas for the Four-way lunar Lander–Orbiter tracking mode are given and implemented in our newly-designed lunar spacecraft orbit determination and gravity field recovery software, the LUnar Gravity REcovery and Analysis Software/System (LUGREAS). The simulated observables permit analysis of the potential contribution Four-way lunar Lander–Orbiter tracking could make to precision orbit determination for the Orbiter. Our results show that the Four-way lunar Lander–Orbiter Range Rate has better geometric constraint on the orbit, and is more sensitive than the traditional two-way range rate that only tracks data between the Earth station and lunar Orbiter. After combining the Four-way lunar Lander–Orbiter Range Rate data with the traditional two-way range rate data and considering the Lander position error and lunar gravity field error, the accuracy of precision orbit determination for the Orbiter in the simulation was improved significantly, with the biggest improvement being one order of magnitude, and the Lander position could be constrained to sub-meter level. This new tracking mode could provide a reference for the Chang’E-5 mission and have enormous potential for the positioning of future lunar farside Lander due to its relay characteristic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The injected transfer orbit of lunar probe Chang’E 5T1 (CE-5T1) is determined immediately after the probe separates from its launcher. As the first orbit in the lunar flight, the CE-5T1 injected transfer orbit is crucial to the consequence of rocket vehicle launch mission and the probe’s subsequent midway orbital manoeuvre. In this paper, we discuss the problem of using rocket GPS measurements to determine the probe velocity increment due to mechanical separation, and subsequently the injected transfer orbit determination of CE-5T1. Motivated by the post-mission analysis of lunar probe Chang’E 3 (CE-3), we give theoretical evidence to explain the physical phenomenon of semi-major axis sudden change at the probe separation instant through the derivation of the Vis-Viva equation. In succession, we focus on the description of the procedure used for the orbit determination performed on separated arcs of rocket GPS measurements through the use of momentum conservation to determine the probe separation velocity. Finally, actual flight data of the CE-3 and CE-5T1 missions are used for the validation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spacecraft–plasma interaction simulator has been improved to allow for the simulation of lunar and asteroid dust emission, transport, deposition, and interaction with a spacecraft on or close to the lunar surface. The physics of dust charging and of the forces that they are subject to has been carefully implemented in the code. It is both a tool to address the risks faced by lunar probes on the surface and a tool to study the dust transport physics. We hereby present the details of the physics that has been implemented in the code as well as the interface improvements that allow for a user-friendly insertion of the lunar topology and of the lander in the simulation domain. A realistic case is presented that highlights the capabilities of the code as well as some general results about the interaction between a probe and a dusty environment. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The lunar probe, Chang’E-2, is the first one to successfully achieve both the transfer to Sun–Earth libration point orbit and the flyby of near-Earth asteroid Toutatis. This paper, taking the Chang’E-2’s asteroid flyby mission as an example, provides a method to design low-energy transfers from the libration point orbit to an asteroid. The method includes the analysis of transfer families and the design of optimal impulse transfers. Firstly, the one-impulse transfers are constructed by correcting the initial guesses, which are obtained by perturbing in the direction of unstable eigenvector. Secondly, the optimality of one-impulse transfers is analyzed and the optimal impulse transfers are built by using the primer vector theory. After optimization, the transfer families, including the slow and the fast transfers, are refined to be continuous and lower-cost transfers. The method proposed in this paper can be also used for designing transfers from an arbitrary Sun–Earth libration point orbit to a near-Earth asteroid in the Sun–Earth–Moon system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the past decades, assessing the impact of technological project and related engineering has long been paid attention. The objective of this research is to investigate technological project and related engineering's social impact through public perspective. The present article investigated the social impact of China's Chang E Lunar Probe project by using Social Impact Assessment (SIA) methods, resulting from a research study conducted in 2012. SIA is a collective of the systematic methods used to investigate the influence of engineering, project or policy and to present their potential social impacts. A survey from public respondents indicated that public spoke highly of Chang E Probe on the whole. Furthermore, a factor analysis of the perspective of public perspective towards Chang E Lunar Probe project has discovered such impact were mainly assessed in four dimensions by public, these impacts were military impact, political impact, public support and educational impact. From the results obtained so far, it revealed that public perspective towards the political impact of the Chang E Probe varies from each other but unified when they assess Chang E's military impact, meanwhile student's perspective towards the educational impact of Chang E Probe was largely different from other publics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper is based on a study conducted by Sasakawa International Center for Space Architecture (SICSA) between September 2008 and February 2009. SICSA has been awarded key roles in helping two aerospace company teams plan living and working accommodations for early lunar surface missions. SICSA has major conceptual design responsibilities on teams headed by Boeing and ILC-Dover which were separately selected out of more than 20 competing proposals for two out of three total NASA study contracts. Major study priorities were to determine minimum habitat requirements essential to keep crews alive and safe from harm during the first month-long missions, and then expand these accommodations as operations, facilities and amenities are extended. This paper discusses important points of radiation protection design options and known radiation protection materials applications with a special emphasis upon comparative mass implications for several proposed habitat configuration concepts. These comparisons are correlated with shielding surface area rather than actual mass estimates due to current data uncertainties regarding a number of issues: unresolved questions concerning how much radiation protection will be mandated, what mitigation strategies will be selected, what types and thicknesses of materials will be used, and how much of the total allowable module mass can be allocated for this purpose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a dilution-of-precision-(DoP)-based stationary surface navigation analysis of multiple lunar satellite constellations, Earth-based deep space network asses and their combinations. It notes that the generalized DoP enables the effects of multiple radiometric measurements to be evaluated in the same manner DoP standard measures are used. It was found out that the impact of multiple radiometric measurements integration in time is assessed to enable the performance of sparse constellations across the moon.

Abstract: The dynamics of the restricted three-body Earth–Moon-particle problem predicts the existence of direct periodic orbits around the Lagrangian equilibrium point L1. From these orbits, we derive a set of trajectories that form links between the Earth and the Moon and are capable of performing transfers between terrestrial and lunar orbits, in addition to defining an escape route from the Earth–Moon system. When we consider a more complex and realistic dynamical system – the four-body Sun–Earth–Moon-particle (probe) problem – the trajectories have an expressive gain of inclination when they penetrate in the lunar influence sphere, thus allowing the insertion of probes into low-altitude lunar orbits with high inclinations, including polar orbits. In this study, we present these links and investigate some possibilities for performing an Earth–Moon transfer based on these trajectories. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper will present key issues and concepts that illustrate interrelationships between crew exploration vehicle (CEV) and planetary surface systems design decisions associated with human exploration of the Moon and the Mars. Such decisions will influence surface element sizing, configurations and deployment. Important implications include impacts and constraints upon habitat module efficiencies, safety and surface implementation. A correlation between planning for CEV and surface system requirements demands an integrated approach. Launch and orbital transfer means must be analyzed in parallel with comprehensive payload needs and element design options. Accordingly, studies should address a variety of option drivers and alternatives, including: [•] Surface landing strategies applicable for the Moon and the Mars that place payloads above, in plane with and below landers. [•] Surface element geometrics and configurations that orient landing elements (including habitats) in vertical vs. horizontal orientations. [•] Habitat model options that apply conventional ISS-type fixed pressure vessels and expandable (inflatable and telescoping) approaches. [•] Influences of sizes and types upon design and operations of surface mobility systems. [•] Surface transport requirements/options that involve use of pressurized and unpressurized vehicles. [•] Surface element configurations requirements/options and their influences upon deployment, crew safety, evolutionary growth and other factors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Lunar Water Astroparticle Observatories are proposed to be fabricated at the Lunar North and South Poles by use of Lunar in situ resources. These observatories will consist, initially, of a basin excavated, to be filled with 1000 metric tons of water from the in situ resources at the Polar Regions. The water basin would be constructed by excavation of a cavity out of the regolith, lined with waterproof material and then filled with water extracted from the adjacent permanently dark crater regions. These permanently dark regions are believed to contain water (ice) at a 1–5% concentration level. This water would be extracted by microwave heating of the regolith, the evolved water vapor and other gases then captured, followed by condensation of the water vapor. The microwave heating would be done with a suspended source rastered over the ice field in a crater. The condensed water would be transported to the detector basins, would fill the basins, which would then be sealed to prevent evaporation to the Moon''s environment. The energy for the construction of the cavity detectors and the water extraction would come from solar cell arrays fabricated on the surface of the Moon on crater rims to receive maximum sunlight, and integrated into an electric power system that would supply energy for the microwave melting of the ice, for the motive power for the cavity excavation and, later, for the operation of the detection and measurement systems deployed in and around the water observatory and the processing and the transmission of the data to Earth. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The US ‘vision for space exploration’ articulated at the beginning of 2004 encompasses a broad range of human and robotic space missions, including missions to the Moon, Mars and destinations beyond. It establishes clear goals and objectives, yet sets equally clear budgetary ‘boundaries’ by stating firm priorities, including ‘tough choices’ regarding current major NASA programs. The new vision establishes as policy the goals of pursuing commercial and international collaboration in realizing future space exploration missions. Also, the policy envisions that advances in human and robotic mission technologies will play a key role—both as enabling and as a major public benefit that will result from implementing that vision. In pursuing future international space exploration goals, the exploration of the Moon during the coming decades represents a particularly appealing objective. The Moon provides a unique venue for exploration and discovery—including the science of the Moon (e.g., geological studies), science from the Moon (e.g., astronomical observatories), and science on the Moon (including both basic research, such as biological laboratory science, and applied research and development, such as the use of the Moon as a test bed for later exploration). The Moon may also offer long-term opportunties for utilization—including Earth observing applications and commercial developments. During the coming decade, robotic lunar exploration missions will play a particularly important role, both in their own right and as precursors to later, more ambitious human and robotic exploration and development efforts. The following paper discusses some of the issues and opportunities that may arise in establishing plans for future robotic lunar exploration. Particular emphasis is placed on four specific elements of future robotic infrastructure: Earth–Moon in-space transportation systems; lunar orbiters; lunar descent and landing systems; and systems for long-range transport on the Moon. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In response to the US President''s Vision for Space Exploration (January 14, 2004), NASA has revised its utilization plans for International Space Station (ISS) to focus on (1) research on astronaut health and the development of countermeasures that will protect our crews from the space environment during long-duration voyages, (2) ISS as a test bed for research and technology developments that will insure vehicle systems and operational practices are ready for future exploration missions, (3) developing and validating operational practices and procedures for long-duration space missions. In addition, NASA will continue a small amount of fundamental research in life and microgravity sciences. There have been significant research accomplishments that are important for achieving the Exploration Vision. Some of these have been formal research payloads, while others have come from research based on the operation of ISS. We will review a selection of these experiments and results, as well as outline some of ongoing and upcoming research. The ISS represents the only microgravity opportunity to perform on-orbit long-duration studies of human health and performance and technologies relevant for future long-duration missions planned during the next 25 years. Even as NASA focuses on developing the Orion spacecraft and return to the moon (2015–2020), research on and operation of the ISS is fundamental to the success of NASA''s Exploration Vision. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Since several years the institutions of the authors have conducted many strategic studies, which are aiming at lunar ventures serving both scientific and commercial applications. The latest mission concept, which has been created in this partnership together with scientific user groups from nine countries is targeting towards the establishment of lunar infrastructures serving multiple sciences. The selected strategy for the implementation of this scenario leads to the definition of the erection of a low frequency radio telescope on the far side of the Moon as initial venture. As starting point the erection of a first hub at a lunar pole was discussed. The further analyses show that the completion of the scenario will demand a global co-operation also in the sense of man tended missions or even permanent human bases. For this reason a global roadmap has to be considered for the generation of a credible programmatic. On the other hand to achieve a sustainable political and public support for this kind of venture it seems mandatory for Europe to achieve a visible contribution in such kind of venture. Therefore the identification of an autonomous European mission element, which allows self-standing execution of missions on one hand, but also provides key contributions to an international road map are major elements of the study. An overview on the current status of the proposed scenario will be given in terms of technical solution but with a strong focus on the programmatic, leading from an autonomous European initial mission to an international lunar venture. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article states that the moon probe D-CIXS onboard the European Space Agency's moon mission spacecraft SMART-1 has detected calcium on the surface of the moon. Researchers are using this finding to help answer the question of whether the moon formed from debris leftover after a collision to the Earth.