Search

This study aimed to explore the linguistic factors that influence the development and diversification of World Englishes along with implications for language teaching, learning, and policy, and to examine the trends in research related to WEs. Using a systematic review process with MAXQDA 20.2.1, the findings indicate that research on World Englishes has focused on a variety of linguistic elements, with a particular emphasis on syntax, phonology, and discourse and pragmatics. The study also highlights the importance of understanding the cultural and linguistic contexts in which English is being used, as these contexts can have a significant impact on the linguistic features and pragmatic norms of different varieties of English. Regarding the challenges that learners face when learning WEs, the findings suggest that learners may struggle with the different semantic features and pragmatic norms of different WEs varieties. In terms of trends in research related to WEs, the findings show a growing interest in the study of WEs from various linguistic and cultural perspectives, including sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, and language education. However, there is a need for a more interdisciplinary approach to research on WEs, incorporating diverse perspectives and methodologies.

This study applies the Apriori algorithm to analyse patterns, syntactic structures, and thematic clusters in Chinese studies data from various genres. This study aims to identify recurring linguistic elements in order to shed light on the dynamic nature of the Chinese language across different contexts and time periods. The Apriori algorithm is used to identify frequent item sets and establish associations between linguistic constructs in large datasets (over 20 years). This study examines the complexity of the Chinese language by analysing co-occurrence patterns, syntactic tendencies, and thematic categorizations. This study examines the evolution of language, regional word choices, and cultural nuances. Thematic clusters and sensory associations establish the relationship between language and culture. The study of Chinese language patterns and cultural implications utilises data to advance computational linguistics and theory. Computational models prioritize cultural and historical context analysis for more comprehensive language processing. Theoretical implications help researchers understand language evolution and culture, while practical implications improve language technology tools. The conclusion provides support for research in computational linguistics, cultural studies, and linguistic theory-based holistic language analysis and application.

This reflective piece seeks to shed light on the numerous contributions of Diane Larsen-Freeman to theory construction, applied linguistics, and language education by drawing parallels and insights from the FIFA 2022 Qatar World Cup Final. Looking at the multitude of factors that affect both soccer games and language development research, teaching, and learning, the article explores some of her key publications, chosen for their invitation to us to consider expansive holistic changes that both our research and our language education enterprise badly need. My aim has been to capture some prominent aspects of Diane's unique gifts as a researcher, mentor, thinker, and educator, revealing her lifelong dedication to all these areas and to various fields of language study.

This paper makes a strong connection between the need for innovation in second language pedagogy and the need for language teachers to develop a good understanding of how language develops in our minds/brains. The future for innovative language pedagogy requires that language teachers fully develop the following: (i) a working definition of the nature of language; (ii) a working definition of communication; and (iii) a good knowledge of how language acquisition happens. In the field of both language teaching and language research, there is a need for teachers and researchers to reconnect to second language acquisition theories to ensure that any decisions about language pedagogy are informed and evidence-based. The main question which must be addressed by the experts is: How do we make the knowledge outlined above, commonplace in language teaching?

A word often expresses many different morphological functions. Which part of a word contributes to which part of the overall meaning is not always clear, which raises the question as to how such functions are learned. While linguistic studies tacitly assume the co-occurrence of cues and outcomes to suffice in learning these functions (Baer-Henney, Kügler, & van de Vijver, 2015; Baer-Henney & van de Vijver, 2012), error-driven learning suggests that contingency rather than contiguity is crucial (Nixon, 2020; Ramscar, Yarlett, Dye, Denny, & Thorpe, 2010). In error-driven learning, cues gain association strength if they predict a certain outcome, and they lose strength if the outcome is absent. This reduction of association strength is called unlearning. So far, it is unclear if such unlearning has consequences for cue--outcome associations beyond the ones that get reduced. To test for such consequences of unlearning, we taught participants morphophonological patterns in an artificial language learning experiment. In one block, the cues to two morphological outcomes--plural and diminutive--co-occurred within the same word forms. In another block, a single cue to only one of these two outcomes was presented in a different set of word forms. We wanted to find out, if participants unlearn this cue's association with the outcome that is not predicted by the cue alone, and if this allows the absent cue to be associated with the absent outcome. Our results show that if unlearning was possible, participants learned that the absent cue predicts the absent outcome better than if no unlearning was possible. This effect was stronger if the unlearned cue was more salient. This shows that unlearning takes place even if no alternative cues to an absent outcome are provided, which highlights that learners take both positive and negative evidence into account--as predicted by domain general error-driven learning.

This study is the first to explore language attitudes of the endangered Faifi language in SA. Understanding these attitudes is crucial for future language revitalization efforts. Employing a conceptual framework from LA research, data were collected via an online Arabic questionnaire with a sample of 258 participants. This paper aims to explore the indigenous people's language attitudes, frequency of language use, and the influence of social backgrounds. Data were analyzed using factor analysis and multiple regression. Three key findings emerged: Firstly, a two-dimensional model encompassing status and dynamism dimensions was identified, offering new insights into LAs. Notably, the trait "educated" was associated with dynamism rather than the typical association with the status dimension, which can be attributed to educational factors related to the Faifi language's lack of formal instruction in schools. Secondly, the reported use of the Faifi language by its speakers indicated a positive trend. Lastly, age was found to be the only significant sociodemographic variable, with older participants exhibiting more positive attitudes compared to younger participants. In summary, this research contributes fresh perspectives on the dimensions of language attitudes, particularly by highlighting the deviation of the trait "educated" from its customary position within the status dimension. Additionally, the study emphasizes the salience of age as a factor. The paper recommends macro and micro language policies; macro language policy should consider integrating the language into the educational system, while micro language policy should originate from the indigenous community itself, initiating initiatives to further support language use among young speakers.

Malaysia is a multilingual and multiethnic country with a substantial population of ethnic Chinese, who use standardized languages such as Malay, English, and Mandarin, as well as various Chinese dialects in their daily lives within and beyond Chinese communities. Cantonese is a community language that significantly impacts the lives of local Chinese in the city of Ipoh, Malaysia. This study aims to examine the vitality of Cantonese in Ipoh using the language vitality and endangerment (LVE) tool developed by UNESCO. Nine LVE-proposed factors reflecting the degree of endangerment were investigated. Using a survey method, 377 participants from various groups were randomly selected from the Chinese community in Ipoh, Malaysia during January 6 to February 5, 2022. The result shows that Cantonese in Ipoh is rated as "Unsafe," indicating that measures should be taken to prevent its further decline. The result suggests that further research is needed to gain a clearer understanding of the factors affecting language shift and maintenance, as well as the potential and challenges of linguistic and cultural diversity in the contemporary world.

Structural equation modeling (SEM), as a flexible and versatile multivariate statistical technique, has been growingly used since its introduction in the 1970s. This article presents a methodological synthesis of the characteristics of the use of SEM in L2 research by examining the reporting practices in light of the current SEM literature to eventually provide some empirically grounded recommendations for future research. A total of 722 instances of SEM found in 145 empirical reports published in 16 leading L2 journals across two periods of 1981-2008 and 2009-2020 were systematically reviewed. Each study was coded for a wide range of analytic and reporting practices. The results indicate that despite the growing popularity of SEM in L2 research, there was a wide variation and inconsistency in its uses and reports within and across the two periods in regard to the underlying assumptions, variables and models, model specification and estimation, and fit statistics. Drawing on the current SEM literature, we will discuss the findings and research implications for future use and reporting of SEM in L2 research.

To English educators and researchers, having a good grasp of what a language is and how language learning takes place is important. To a certain extent, surveying language study development is a good start to achieving the goal. This article is the second part of a literature review summarizing language studies taking place along the history of philosophy that has lasted for 26 centuries, starting from ancient Greek to the postmodern era. This part includes language studies conducted in Renaissance Period up to the Postmodern Age. Data was collected by surveying relevant and credible textbooks and scientific articles. The findings reveal that unlike language studies in Ancient Greek up to the Middle Ages that focused on various paradigms related to the nature of language and microlinguistic concepts, the studies in the era of modern philosophy focus on the relationship between language and users and the world. Overall, the changes in the focus of language studies over the 26 centuries indicate that the study of language will keep on going on and on because language is a symbiotic organism that continues to change along with the changes in thinking, experience, life, and human culture as the host of the symbiosis between language and humans.

This meta-synthesis study aims to reveal the types of bilingualism in Turkey by interpreting the quantitative data and findings obtained from studies on bilingualism types. In the light of the findings, 28 types of bilingualism and 5 classification criteria have been identified in the theses written on bilingualism in the "Turkish Higher Education Institution Thesis Center database". The synthesis data show that the most addressed type of bilingualism in 22 theses was "balanced" and "dominant bilingualism". The most frequently used criterion in classifying bilingualism is "skill level criterion", followed by "age of acquisition", "cognitive organization," and "status of the two languages".

Based on Jef Verschueren's Adaptation Theory, Lakoff's definition and Prince et al.'s classification of hedges, this paper takes New York Times and China Daily from January 23rd to April 8th, 2020 as corpus sources, randomly selects 39 COVID-19 reports, and makes a contrastive study of hedges among them, aiming at exploring the similarities and differences in the use of hedges in COVID-19 reports selected from Chinese and American mainstream newspapers and further revealing their influencing factors.

The study aimed to investigate the disciplinary variations and the structural/functional features of recurrent expressions in the introduction and literature sections of the Master of Arts (MA) theses in two corpora. It is significant since the bundles fulfil specific functions in the form of formulaic language. The sampling of the study was Turkish and British academic writers. Their essays mainly based on academic argumentative topics were selected as analysis data. Data collection included compilation and categorization of the computerized corpora for possible differences and similarities. Sketch Engine, an online text analysis tool, was used for the analysis. Exploring the usage patterns of recurrent expressions among the native and non-native corpora, we also analysed the four-word recurrent expressions and featured the existing variations of functional and structural aspects. Cross-linguistic analysis revealed that Turkish writers distinguish some features of recurrent expressions more than others. Structural expressions encompassed the verb-based, noun and propositional structures. The research, text, and participant oriented recurrent expressions built up the functional groups. The most frequently used functional categories were location and description in research-oriented recurrent expressions. The findings also indicated a positive role of recurrent expressions in the learning of the disciplinary features. Structural similarities were also found, indicating strong functional features for constructing discourse in research writing. The implication is that creating appropriate academic discursive practices with a focus on the properties of the recurrent expressions can be better analysed by employing several online corpus tools.

Adopting Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is a testament to the revolutionary and evolutionary advancement in theory and empirical practice in the field. CDST is revolutionary for the fact that it warrants systems thinking of SLA phenomena that breaks the chain of dichotomous conceptualization on vital issues such as the mechanism of language acquisition and learning and the effectiveness of positive and negative evidence. The emergence of CDST, on the other hand, is an evolutionary product nurtured by the painstaking collaborations of SLA scholars for over two decades of scientific inquiry (see, e.g., Han, 2019; Hiver & Al-Hoorie, 2019; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008; Ortega & Han, 2017). To capitalize on CDST as a valid approach to scholarly work, it is necessary to grapple with its fundamental constructs. This forum piece accentuates a critical notion of CDST: "self-organization." By first referring to the theoretical aspects of self-organization, this forum piece seeks to demonstrate the relevance of this notion in SLA. This piece will then review three sample studies homing in on learner language development with a CDST lens and a specific focus on self-organization.

"Variability" and "fractality," two key concepts in Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST)--the former concerning changes and variations, and the latter concerning recursiveness and self-similarities--may seem contradictory at first glance. This forum piece attempts to elucidate how the two seemingly contradictory properties can be reconciled in CDST to examine second language (L2) development. To that end, this piece includes a definition and short epistemological history of each concept, accompanied by a review of some relevant studies. It concludes with two metaphors to illustrate the relationship between "variability" and "fractality," and how the two seemingly irreconcilable ideas can generate a clearer and more panoramic view of L2 development.

Second language development can be viewed as a complex and dynamic process in which learners follow non-linear trajectories and develop their language over a period of time (Larsen-Freeman, 2006). Intrinsic to the view of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST), a system is composed of hierarchical, interdependent subcomponents (learner, learner language, and environment) in dynamic relations as learners develop their interlanguage over time. This piece reviews the interactive and dynamic nature of the subcomponents illuminating the transitory nature or variability (in patterns of language development) that is inherently a characteristic of a complex dynamic system (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). First, the forum piece describes how the growth of a subsystem can affect other parts of the system, followed by an explanation of the diverse interrelationships between the connecting subsystems. Next, three empirical studies on the varied relationships between the subsystems are presented. The article concludes with a critique of the current state of research on this topic, revealing some gaps that need to be addressed in future research.

This article traces the intellectual roots and developments of the notion of competence in second language (L2) teaching and research. Since L2 teaching and research invariably concern competence of some sort (linguistic, communicative, interactional, or otherwise), there have been countless attempts to define competence from diverse theoretical perspectives, resulting in a plethora of definitions as well as debates, confusions, and tensions. As global mobility and technological advancements prompt us to question traditional assumptions in our field, it is high time to take stock of how the notion of competence has been dealt with in L2 teaching and research. With a particular focus on interactional discourse, this short article offers a glimpse into the conceptual diversity regarding competence and facilitate further exploration of how it may be researched and fostered in view of modern-day complexities. The article concludes with a discussion of pedagogical implications and controversies.

Manuscripts are known to transmit cultural heritage across generations along with thoughts, knowledge, customs, and people's behaviors. The current study aimed to examine the influence of Arabic manuscripts on the Malay and the Acehnese tradition with the spread of Islam. For this purpose, an Acehnese manuscript, "Kitab Tauhid" (KT), was sampled as the primary data to find out the orthography of Acehnese and the Malay language, a domain that has so far been underrated and understudied. This qualitative study used a descriptive research design and note-taking method, i.e., transcribing and translating for retrieving the absorption of the Malay language and the Jawi orthography. The objective was to obtain a deep analysis of the sampled text and classify the Jawi Script and Malay language into the description. The retrieved data was analyzed by classifying them into different types of loanwords and to examine the Jawi script's orthography and the variety of Malay used in the KT manuscript. The results revealed that after Islam's arrival in Nusantara, the Jawi scripts were influenced by the Malay language. This influence included using diacritical marks or "harakat" as vowel markers being removed and replaced with "alif," "wau," and "ya." The implications include evidence of the Arabic vocabulary and the influence of Arabic phonemes and phrases in the KT manuscript.

In current research into second language (L2) speaking, aspects of fluency are measured as static constructs. Averaged over a complete speaking performance, for instance, syllables per minute is calculated. Similarly, the number of pauses is calculated per minute, averaged over a complete speaking task. This paper argues, however, that we need to investigate fluency as a dynamic construct. Research into L1 speaking has shown that L1 fluency aspects may show cyclical temporal patterns (Roberts & Kirsner, 2000). In addition, research into the changes in perception of L2 comprehensibility during task performance has shown that L2 comprehensibility may show dynamic patterns, with implications for ratings on comprehensibility (Nagle et al., 2019). This paper, therefore, argues that L2 fluency should be investigated as a dynamic construct as well. The paper finishes by sketching pedagogical implications and directions for future research.

The Holy Qur'an, as an oral revelation by Allah to Prophet Muhammad through Gabriel, is a conveyance of the message of Almighty Allah to humanity. It takes the form of monologic argumentation which is the fountainhead of divine orientation for Muslims. Yet, the Qur'an, sometimes, offers detailed accounts of historical events and narratives in the form of dialogues. The present study carries out research to examine how Allah's message is pragmatically structured as monologic and dialogic argumentation, by outlining the argumentative strategies exploited to convey the intended message. To achieve these aims, the relevant literature was surveyed and a qualitative analysis was conducted by means of a model adopted for this purpose. This kind of research is characterized by following certain procedures which pragmatically aim at finding out the pragmatic characteristics which are peculiar to the divine verses of the holy Qur'an.

Mixed methods research, or mixed research, is an area with a great deal of promise for applied linguistics, especially given the field's diverse range of topics and methods. However, when mixed research mixes qualitative and qualitative methods, this can be problematic as researchers suppose this implies mixing mutually exclusive 'quantitative' and 'qualitative' paradigms. This paper argues that these problems arise from the identification of paradigms as qualitative or qualitative. It explores how mixed research might be conducted from a single paradigm. Finally, it offers a novel framework for mixed research which allows for a finer grained and less problematic description of mixed research.

To date, there has been mounting research evidence on the impact of written corrective feedback. In response to this, reviews have been conducted to condense either findings or methodologies through the combined analysis of EFL and ESL studies. Although syntheses shed light on the topic, no one provides exclusive insights into EFL realities. Therefore, this systematic literature review was proposed to synthesize methodologies, findings, and research suggestions of EFL articles analyzing direct and indirect feedback, two widely debated and employed strategies in classrooms, with either a focused or unfocused scope. Through a seven-step protocol suggested by Petticrew and Roberts (2006), 21 EFL primary studies published between 2012 and 2022 were selected from the bibliometric dataset of Crosthwaite et al. (2022), which contains articles retrieved from the Scopus database. The papers were read through to answer five research questions on methodologies, findings, and study suggestions. The results show that most EFL studies were quasi-experimental adopting a quantitative approach with a pretest-posttest-delayed-posttest or pretest-posttest design, and the strategies significantly impinged on grammar and non-grammar aspects. Suggestions are given to further study the impact of feedback under different conditions such as targets, proficiency levels, and strategies and scope with a comparative nature.

This paper reports a bibliometric analysis of two small data sets: a set of 34 papers that make up "The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies" (Webb, 2020) and a set of papers dealing with second language (L2) vocabulary research taken from a single journal "Frontiers in Psychology." Bibliometric maps based on author co-citations in these two data sets are presented and compared. Although the two data sets are comparable in terms of size, they appear to be very divergent. In particular, the significant sources identified in "The Handbook" map seem to play a relatively minor role in the "Frontiers" map. The obvious conclusion is that "The Handbook" is not as representative of L2 vocabulary research as its title might lead us to believe. The paper argues that micro-bibliometric studies like this one can sometimes highlight features that are lost in the more traditional large-scale bibliometric approach.

The importance of academic journals in second language (L2) research is evident on at least two levels. Journals are, first of all, central to the process of disseminating scientific findings. Journals are also critical on a professional level as most L2 researchers must publish articles to advance their careers. However, not all journals are perceived as equal; some may be considered more prestigious or of higher quality and may, therefore, achieve a greater impact on the field. It is therefore necessary that we understand the identity and quality of L2 research journals, yet very little research (e.g., Egbert, 2007; VanPatten & Williams, 2002) has considered these issues to date. The current study sought to explore L2 journal identity and quality, and the relationship between these constructs. In order to do so, a database was compiled based on three different types of sources: (1) a questionnaire eliciting L2 researchers' perceptions of the quality and prestige of 27 journals that publish L2 research (N = 327); (2) manual coding of different types of articles (e.g., empirical studies, review papers), data (quantitative, qualitative, mixed), research settings, and authorship patterns (K = 2,024) using the same 27 journals; and (3) bibliometric and submission data such as impact factors, citation counts, and acceptance rates. Descriptive statistics were applied to explore overall quality and prestige ratings as well as publication trends found in each journal. The relationships between those patterns and subjective ratings were also examined. In addition, regression models were built to determine the extent to which perceptions of journal quality and prestige could be explained as a function of journal and article features. We discuss the findings of the study in terms of on-going debates concerning publication practices, study quality, impact factors, journal selection, and the "journal culture" in applied linguistics.

Nowadays, research in second language acquisition (SLA) is becoming increasingly interdisciplinary while many technical frontiers and research hotspots have emerged. Many studies focus on interdisciplinary topics, but few in-depth studies have been conducted on interdisciplinarity. This study examined the interdisciplinarity of SLA and the interdisciplinary development process using a bibliometrics approach. The study has found that the SLA discipline has played roles as both the provider and recipient of knowledge in the development of interdisciplines. In the first case, SLA theories and methods flow into the research areas of "life sciences" and "technology" to form interdisciplinary studies with brain research, neurology, cognition, computer technology, and engineering, making SLA a provider of knowledge In the second case, SLA research receives knowledge from areas of arts and humanities and social sciences as well as from interdisciplinary studies within its own discipline, making SLA a receiver of knowledge. The new insights into the interdisciplinarity of SLA provided in this study are helpful for our deeper understanding of the interdisciplinary nature of the SLA discipline.

While writing involves interactions between writers and readers as each considers the other in creating and interpreting texts, research interest in written interaction is a fairly recent development. This paper uses a bibliometric analysis to trace the growing interest in written interaction over the past 30 years from its origins in philosophy, conversation analysis and sociocultural language pedagogy. To do so, we analyzed all 918 articles mentioning writing and interaction in the social science citation index since 1990, dividing the corpus into two periods following the massive increase in interest after 2005. We identify which topics have been most prevalent and which authors, publications, journals and countries most influential over time. The results indicate the growing importance of identity, genre, discipline, metadiscourse and stance, particularly drawing on corpus methods. We also note the participation of authors from more countries in publishing interaction research with the growth of authors from China becoming particularly visible. These findings may interest those working in written discourse analysis and scholarly publishing.

The current study draws on synthetic techniques and bibliometric analysis to explore the patterns of scientific collaboration in light of methodological orientations. We examined 3,992 applied linguistics (AL) articles published in 18 top-tier journals from 2009 to 2018 and analyzed their methodological orientations and scientific collaboration. Considering that the number of co-authored papers outweighs single-authored counterparts, our results revealed that the overall degree of collaboration for AL journals was moderate-to-high (57.7%). In particular, quantitative studies contained the highest degree of collaboration (66.8%). This was followed by systematic reviews (60.9%), and mixed-methods approach (55.7%). Country-wise, our overall findings further indicated that the United States and the United Kingdom were the two main hubs of collaborative activities for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods research. While the USA was the top country in systematic reviews like all other research approaches, the UK was the fifth country in systematic reviews. As for collaborating authors, our findings demonstrated that the most influential quantitative researchers had collaborated on Natural Language Processing (NLP) and data mining. While the mixed-methods researchers had a tendency to collaborate on conceptual issues subscribing to the language testing and assessment strand, the most productive qualitative researchers had collaborated on L2 writing issues. Implications for applied linguistics research are further discussed.

It is aimed to reveal the current state in the field of Germanistics on a global scale in this study. In this direction, the Scopus database was searched for the publications in the field of Germanistics, and the publications related to the relevant literature between the years 2018-2022 were examined with bibliometric analysis. The vast majority of the publications included in the scope of the study are in the article type, and their language is mostly English. The data obtained were visualized with science mapping, which is one of the bibliometric analysis techniques. The VOSviewer program was employed for this. Among the science maps created using this program, there are network maps of the most productive country, keyword co-occurrence analysis, bibliographic coupling analyses of institutions and countries, author and reference co-citation analyses, and co-authorship analysis of countries. The maps were presented in the study's findings section, and the bibliometric information and relationships in each of these maps were assessed separately.

Clipping is a word formation process in which a word is reduced/shortened to one of its parts as in exam, math, grad, lab, Sue while still retaining the same meaning and same part of speech. Clipping is classified into: (i) Initial clipping: phone (telephone), net (Internet); (ii) Medial clipping: fancy (fantasy), ma'am (madam); (iii) back clipping: exam, fax, doc, gym; (iv) Complex clipping: chem bot (chemistry-botany), ed psych (educational psychology). In Arabic, single word clipping of native words is limited ([Arabic symbols omitted]), whereas compound word clipping is more common in names of people, countries, cities, airlines, universities, courses, rivers, airlines, hospitals, and others. This study explores clipped borrowings (loan words) used in Spoken Arabic with no clipped, reduced, or shortened forms in English or French. It also aims to classify clipped borrowings, identify the most common type, and explains why Arabic speakers clip borrowings. Results revealed 5 types of borrowings: (1) back clipping of single words and compound (70%) as in aluminum > [Arabic symbols omitted], Chevrolet [Arabic symbols omitted], centimeter [Arabic symbols omitted], hypermarket [Arabic symbols omitted], Intercontinental [Arabic symbols omitted]?, Facebook [Arabic symbols omitted], WhatsApp [Arabic symbols omitted], Casablanca [Arabic symbols omitted]; (2) fore clipping (10%) as in album [Arabic symbols omitted]; (3) medial clipping (11%) as in Alzheimer [Arabic symbols omitted], cinema [Arabic symbols omitted], radio [Arabic symbols omitted]; (4) complex clipping with phonological changes (9%) as in rickshaw >ricksha, Hollywood >hilyood; and (v) crasis as in workshop [Arabic symbols omitted], screwdriver [Arabic symbols omitted]). Such clippings are spontaneously created and used by educated and uneducated Arabs and those who do not know English. Students majoring in English, medicine, and pharmacy at King Saud University create their own clippings: Style (Stylistics); Semantic (Semantics); Contrastive (Contrastive Analysis); mid (midterm), cause (because), lap (laptop), pharma (pharmacy), ophtha (ophthalmology), pedia (pediatrics) which they sometimes use in their writing assignments. The students asserted that clipped forms are "cute, easy, and everybody is doing it". They use them with other students in the same major. Instructors should draw students' attention to student-created clippings that are ungrammatical, and to Arabic clipped borrowings that can only be used in spoken Arabic but not in English formal writing. Socio- and psycholinguistic reasons for clipped borrowings are given.

Although some critics consider it time-consuming and demanding, proponents of the monolingual approach for field research (i.e., learning to speak a target field language as part of the research process) argue that it can provide a unique insight into its structures. However, this claim remains largely unsubstantiated in the available literature on field methods. The present paper sets out to achieve a twofold objective: First, it reviews prior observations about the monolingual method in documentary-linguistics publications, highlighting important gaps in research. Secondly, based on qualitative data from the author's fieldwork context in rural, indigenous China, it contributes to addressing one such gap by demonstrating how, when, and why basic to intermediate communicative competence can enhance the documentation, description, and analysis of a field language, in ways that complement and sometimes outperform other approaches such as bilingual and stimuli-based elicitation.

Podcasts are a unique media that have been used in Indigenous and endangered language communities in the form of Indigenous radio podcasts, instructional websites, or tools to aid classroom instruction. A podcast called Rituals of Kanauji speakers was created in Kanauji, a low-resource Indian language variety. Using this case study in Kanauji, I aim to examine the usage of podcasts for outside classroom instruction in low-resource and lesser-studied languages. Thus, this study highlights the uniqueness of podcasting for language revitalization, as podcasts can be created and consumed anytime and anywhere. For low-resource languages, there can be three kinds: podcasts for teaching language, those for cultural expression and general awareness, and those for entertainment purposes. The paper also describes their pros and cons as well as directions for creating a podcast, to help native speakers and linguists in their future documentary projects. Remote data collection of audio recordings was done via WhatsApp for making this podcast. The performance statistics from Kanauji's podcast demonstrate that it has helped promote the language and brought pride and prestige to native speakers. Finally, I conclude that podcasts break the norm and help in language reclamation.

This article presents a study on novel language forms and uses across evolving digital environments, and questions whether emerging digital communication conventions should have a place in language education. The study was motivated by the deepening gap between the content of and approaches to language instruction evident in popular mobile-(assisted) language learning (MALL) apps and the sophisticated evolutions in digital communication over the past 30 years. A team of researchers conducted an environmental scan to locate academic journals publishing on digitally-mediated language and language teaching/learning applications, and to determine topical themes and discussions. This scan was followed by a collaborative in-depth focused literature review to document technological advances and evolutionary changes in social communication across the lifespan of the WWW. The authors posit that language teaching theory and practice must attend to digital convergence and posthumanism, and pose uncomfortable questions for the language teaching profession, such as: What is the place of conversational digital agents in language teaching? Should new media grammar forms be specifically taught? Who is the arbiter of appropriate language use in digital communication?

According to linguistic theory, conversational Implicature (CI) is the original intent of the speech expressed by a speaker. The assumption is that both the speaker and the receiver understand and respect the communication rules. In conversation theory, this is the significant component that has been the subject of discussion. This study investigates the importance of CI in various contexts of daily conversations. The focus of this study is to identify the violation of Grice's theory in the conversation. There is a shortcoming in literature to investigate CI in everyday conversations. Moreover, some studies focussed on specific discussions, which led to a literature gap. The study's outcome will assist researchers in exploring new ideas in conversational implicatures. In addition, it reveals the shortcomings of the usage of implicatures. In this study, the researchers analyzed a set of 77 daily conversations. The study showed that context is critical in determining the meaning of a person's thoughts. In addition, the finding suggests that particularized CI are primarily employed in daily conversations.

The study deals with emphatic constructions in English and Arabic scientific texts. To the researcher's best knowledge, this topic received little attention from linguistic researchers, exceptionally in functional grammar analysis. The importance of this study arises from the fact that some syntactic forms are effective linguistic choices for conveying the meaning of emphasis to the readers. The study aims to identify and analyze different types of linguistic constructions in English and Arabic scientific texts and show the similarities and differences between the two types of scientific texts under investigation. The study intends to analyze the structure of complex clauses by adopting Halliday and Matthiessen's (2004) modal of 'Systemic Functional Grammar' of syntax and Prince's (1978) modal of 'Given-New' information of discourse analysis. These models analyze-samples of English 'Spaceport' magazine and pieces of Arabic 'Sadeem Bulletin' magazine. Moreover, the study depends on a qualitative approach to answer the research questions and confirm its hypothesis. The results show that both languages use some syntactic forms, but Arabic is rich in its constructions. This difference is due to the nature and flexibility of both languages. The findings will be helpful for researchers concerned with syntax and scientific issues because it provides a rigorous analysis of complex clauses into simple parts and shows the focus of information in its suitable.

From a complex dynamic systems (CDST) perspective, language is understood as a dynamic system comprised of subsystems that change and develop over time in response to learner-internal and -external factors (Verspoor et al., 2008). Accordingly, language development is seen as a process responsive to the dynamic interaction between the learner and her context over time. While CDST prefers a process over product approach to analyzing language and its development, extant research on language learning has traditionally taken a more static and rigid perspective on acquisition, generally operating under the assumption that development can be understood (more or less) by drawing a straight line between individual variables or conditions and changes in the interlanguage. Findings from traditional research are often presented in "before and after" terms, framing language outcomes as a product of treatments, rather than characterizing developments as an ongoing and variable process.

Identifying changing patterns of stability and variability is crucial when examining second language development (SLD) from a complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) perspective (Larsen-Freeman, 2020). By studying attractor states, or recurrent patterns of stability, light can be shed on the underlying dynamics of a complex dynamic system (van Geert & Verspoor, 2015). In the context of SLD, attractor states can be observed in individuals' linguistic behaviors, as well as learners' interactions with others (Hiver, 2014; van Geert & Verspoor, 2015). As such, attractor states have been cited in recent SLD literature (e.g., Amerstorfer, 2020; Evans & Larsen-Freeman, 2020; Syed et al., 2021; Gillies & Roger, 2022). The conceptual unpacking of attractor states can therefore be invaluable for SLD scholars seeking to enter the realm of CDST. Accordingly, serving as a stepping stone for those looking to foray into the CDST paradigm, this forum piece offers a definition of attractor state, identifies and describes different types of attractor states, clarifies some possible misconceptions about attractor states, and provides a few examples of attractor states in SLD.

This paper examines evidence for relationships among individual differences (IDs) in L1 achievement, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement. It begins by providing an overview of my academic journey from L1 educator to L2 researcher and explains the development of the Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH). Next, I review Peter Skehan's influential research on language aptitude and L1-L2 relationships and summarizes research showing that IDs in L1 achievement (and L1 ability) are universal, can be identified early, and are stable over time. Then, I review research on L1-L2 relationships and IDs in L2 learning, focusing on the longitudinal studies and reporting two new studies that examine the relationship between L1 achievement and L2 aptitude on the MLAT. Overall, I argue that the development of L1 literacy leads to growth in metalinguistic awareness, which enhances L1 literacy skills, and that L1 literacy and metalinguistic awareness provide the foundation for L2 aptitude, the ability to use and understand "decontextualized" material. I conclude the paper by proposing an answer to the title.

The present study is a corpus-based grammatical investigation for the computational identification of metaphors. The aim of the study is to set a grammatical criterion for the computational identification of metaphors in the Holy Qur'an and propose a computer software input rule for the grammatical identification of metaphorical candidates. The work presented in this study draws on the cognitive theory of metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980), authentic exegeses of the Holy Qur'an, and finally and most significantly it draws on and extends techniques from computational linguistics. The corpus of the study is one surah from the Holy Qur'an, Surat Hud. A methodology for the investigation of candidate metaphor grammatical structure was developed to deduce the grammatical markers of metaphor and utilize them in the computational identification of metaphors. A quantitative and qualitative interpretation of these results and how they can contribute to the computer software suggested for a computer identification of metaphor in the Holy Qur'an is made. The study ended with a theoretical framework that was applied to the corpus to find metaphors by findings specific grammatical markers.

This paper discussed the relationship between language, ecology, and culture, and claimed that the study of linguistic communication as pragmatics should not be confined to the traditional context, but should focus on a broader ecological environment. It analyzed the context of practical communication from the perspective of language ecology beginning with the discussion of the ecological crisis in communication and found that language, like plants and animals in nature, needed the support of the external environment with certain "soil fertility". This paper classified ecological context into two types: internal ecological context (psychological-cognitive context) and external ecological context (natural environment and social environment). Based on this classification, the ecological context of pragmatics was further divided into environment-friendly context, addressee-friendly context, and speaker-friendly ecological context. This paper was an exploratory analysis of language ecology in pragmatics, aiming at helping communicative participants find their ecological niche and adopt appropriate strategies to maintain the ecological balance in pragmatic communication.

Among other aspects, the quantitative researchers point out that defining the research sample is an extremely important question which contributes to the research validity and objectivity, thus raising dillemas on specifying the sample in the qualitative researches related to language phenomena and questions. Therefore, this paper aims to answer the question: How can the sample be determined in the language oriented qualitative research, taking into consideration three different qualitative research scenarios developed by the authors, which, in fact, serve as a sample. The analysis of these scenarios exploits the general qualitative interpretative/inductive approach. The research results clearly show the complex process of choosing the sample, indicating that in the language qualitative researches the decision on the sample depends on the research question and the research goal, that the sample cannot be determined in advance due to the nature of the qualitative researches and that the sample directs the researches in many ways. Thus, determining the sample is an ongoing and constant process of feeding the research question with new information until the saturation is achieved and in the same time, while sampling, the researcher is, in fact, analyzing the data. This research has theoretical and practical implications as well, especially for those who are challenged to conduct the qualitative research on language issues. It provides them with knowledge that broadens their horizons and makes them aware of the qualitative researches' relevance and, in particular, of the sample determination.

Since 2001, "Teaching English with Technology" (TEwT) has published hundreds of research articles to improve the quality of applying technology in language education and research. This collection of articles has covered many aspects of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL); however, due to the importance of CALL teacher education and professional development, a research synthesis of the two decades of TEwT's articles holds the potential to screen the field at large over that time period. By examining the published articles on CALL teacher education and professional development, data analysis revealed that most of them focused on 'teachers' perceptions, attitudes, and experiences,' 'CALL practicum,' 'teachers' knowledge, literacies, and skills' and 'CALL affordances and hindrances'. This study might help as an extant inventory of CALL research interests over the first 20 years of the Journal's existence.

In this article, we examine our own doctoral supervisory dialogue as it has been institutionally interrupted due to Ahmad's application for asylum in the UK. As we find ourselves lacking the conditions of recognisability required for our actions to be institutionally understood (or made intelligible) as part of a doctoral supervisory relationship, we are left with a sense of futility of how scholarly work preoccupied with social justice may confront, let alone transform, the larger sociopolitical realities with which we aim to engage. In the light of calls to turn precarity into a productive pedagogical space for ethical action--often regarded as a 'pedagogy for precarity', we draw from Blommaert's (2005) sociolinguistic theory of voice to account for how we attempted to become recognisable to each other throughout the course of our supervisory meetings. In so doing, we reflect on the implications of our analysis for politically engaged academic research, while linking with wider language scholarship on the possibility for, and imaginability of, social transformation in higher education spaces.

The purpose of this state-of-the-art review is to provide a general overview of recent research on time distribution and second language (L2) learning with special implications for classroom settings. Several studies have been performed to examine how to best distribute the hours of L2 practice to maximize learning by comparing conditions that promote intensive exposure versus others in which L2 input or instruction is more widely spaced. Findings from these studies are relevant not only for practical purposes but also for theory development. This review provides a summary of recent studies as well as suggestions for pedagogical practice. Additionally, it identifies areas for future research concerning the effect of time distribution on L2 learning.

The course Introduction to Linguistics aims at fostering students' rational understanding of human languages, fortifying students' linguistic and cultural awareness and critical thinking ability, and developing students' language research awareness and interest. The article analyzes the status quo of Introduction to Linguistics teaching in some local colleges and universities in China, elaborates the application of project-based research-oriented learning to Introduction to Linguistics teaching in X University from the aspects of teaching design, teaching implementation and teaching assessment, examines its teaching effects through a case study involving students' cognition and experience of the learning mode, the impact on students' knowledge acquisition and ability development, and students' evaluations about the teaching mode. The paper provides some pedagogical implications from the perspectives of teachers and students.

The article focuses on a current issue in modern linguistics: linguistic consciousness. Linguistic consciousness refers to the outcomes of mental activity, perception and assimilation of information verbalized by means of the national language. Theoretical issues with the functioning of the term of "linguistic consciousness" in scientific circulation are clarified, and emphasis is given to the evolution, stages of formation of the linguistic consciousness in connection to social development. The national-language, social, ethnocentric as well as communicative varieties of linguistic consciousness in the diachronic aspect are considered. Linguistic analysis revealed the mechanisms of realization of linguistic consciousness in speech behaviour, determined by the communicative situation with its lingual content and representativeness of extra lingual parameters of the speaker, connection with intellectualized (adapted to a certain stage of language functioning, generalized, suitable for didactic purposes) abstract model of structuring socio-cultural linguistic forms. The following functions of linguistic consciousness are highlighted: reflective (generating a linguistic picture of the world and is realized in linguistic meanings, linguistic forms, and types of communication between words); evaluative (considering different types of evaluation); orientation-selective (providing orientation in the situation in order to choose the means of speech); interpretive (implemented in intralingual and interlingual aspects) (feedback mechanisms). Units of linguistic consciousness are concepts (ethnocentrisms), which are realized in the language by means of associative-verbal thesaurus: words, phrases, utterances, grammatical and logical categories, grammatical and text-forming forms, functioning of intentional-motivational mechanism. The key concept in different definitions of linguistic consciousness is the reflection (the attitude of the subject to the object: the subject enters the picture of the world as an observer, which records the space, time and other characteristics of the object and gives them a subjective assessment).

The present systematic review examines Glenn Fulcher's contributions, works, philosophy, and research in language testing and assessment. The data includes his published articles, book chapters, books and interviews (except the one in this special issue) relevant to language testing and assessment from 1987 to March 2022. This study is conducted in two stages: From the sources, Ali Panahi and Hassan Mohebbi derived 127 commonly used main themes, 43 statistical and instrumental concepts, and 14 domains to create a framework for the analysis. We discovered that his research interests were wide-ranging. However, there was a focus on assessing speaking, rating scale design, validity, language assessment literacy and pedagogy, and the broader understanding of the role of assessment from a philosophical and societal perspective. Our analysis provides an overall understanding of the main themes, key concepts and major implications of Glenn Fulcher's work. In the second stage of the study, Glenn presents his personal discussion and reflection of this systematic review.