Search

A multitude of physical and biological processes on which ecosystems and human societies depend are governed by the climate, and understanding how these processes are altered by climate change is central to mitigation efforts. We developed a set of climate-related variables at as yet unprecedented spatiotemporal detail as a basis for environmental and ecological analyses. We downscaled time series of near-surface relative humidity (hurs) and cloud area fraction (clt) under the consideration of orography and wind as well as near-surface wind speed (sfcWind) using the delta-change method. Combining these grids with mechanistically downscaled information on temperature, precipitation, and solar radiation, we then calculated vapor pressure deficit (vpd), surface downwelling shortwave radiation (rsds), potential evapotranspiration (pet), the climate moisture index (cmi), and site water balance (swb) at a monthly temporal and 30 arcsec spatial resolution globally from 1980 until 2018 (time-series variables). At the same spatial resolution, we further estimated climatological normals of frost change frequency (fcf), snow cover days (scd), potential net primary productivity (npp), growing degree days (gdd), and growing season characteristics for the periods 1981–2010, 2011–2040, 2041–2070, and 2071–2100, considering three shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP126, SSP370, SSP585) and five Earth system models (projected variables). Time-series variables showed high accuracy when validated against observations from meteorological stations and when compared to alternative products. Projected variables were also highly correlated with observations, although some variables showed notable biases, e.g., snow cover days. Together, the CHELSA-BIOCLIM+ dataset presented here (https://doi.org/10.16904/envidat.332, Brun et al., 2022) allows improvement to our understanding of patterns and processes that are governed by climate, including the impact of recent and future climate changes on the world's ecosystems and the associated services on societies.

Many species, including humans exhibit a wide range of social behaviors that are crucial for the adaptation and survival of most species. Brain organization and function are shaped by genetic and environmental factors, although their precise contributions have been relatively understudied in the context of artificial selection. We used divergent lines of quail selected on their high versus low level of motivation to approach a group of conspecifics (S + and S-, respectively) to investigate the influence of genetic selection and early social environment on sociability. We observed distinct sex- and brain-region-specific expression patterns of three neuronal markers: mesotocin, and vasotocin, the avian homologues of mammalian oxytocin and vasopressin, as well as aromatase, the enzyme that converts androgens into estrogens. These markers displayed pronounced and neuroanatomically specific differences between S + and S- quail. Additionally, in a second experiment, we assessed the influence of early social environment on social skills in juvenile birds. Mixing S + and S- resulted in more S- males approaching the group without affecting the sociability of S + or other behaviors, suggesting that the early social environment may influence the results of genetic selection. In conclusion, the divergent quail lines offer a valuable model for unraveling the neuronal and behavioral mechanisms underlying social behaviors., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The conservation and restoration of forest ecosystems require detailed knowledge of the native plant compositions. Here, we map global forest tree composition and assess the impacts of historical forest cover loss and climate change on trees. The global occupancy of 10,590 tree species reveals complex taxonomic and phylogenetic gradients determining a local signature of tree lineage assembly. Species occupancy analyses indicate that historical forest loss has significantly restricted the potential suitable range of tree species in all forest biomes. Nevertheless, tropical moist and boreal forest biomes display the lowest level of range restriction and harbor extremely large ranged tree species, albeit with a stark contrast in richness and composition. Climate change simulations indicate that forest biomes are projected to differ in their response to climate change, with the highest predicted species loss in tropical dry and Mediterranean ecoregions. Our findings highlight the need for preserving the remaining large forest biomes while regenerating degraded forests in a way that provides resilience against climate change., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Islands have been used as model systems to study ecological and evolutionary processes, and they provide an ideal set-up for validating new biodiversity monitoring methods. The application of environmental DNA metabarcoding for monitoring marine biodiversity requires an understanding of the spatial scale of the eDNA signal, which is best tested in island systems. Here, we investigated the variation in Actinopterygii and Elasmobranchii species composition recovered from eDNA metabarcoding along a gradient of distance-to-reef in four of the five French Scattered Islands in the Western Indian Ocean. We collected surface water samples at an increasing distance from reefs (0 m, 250 m, 500 m, 750 m). We used a metabarcoding protocol based on the 'teleo' primers to target marine reef fishes and classified taxa according to their habitat types (benthic or pelagic). We investigated the effect of distance-to-reef on β diversity variation using generalised linear mixed models and estimated species-specific distance-to-reef effects using a model-based approach for community data. Environmental DNA metabarcoding analyses recovered distinct fish species compositions across the four inventoried islands and variations along the distance-to-reef gradient. The analysis of β - diversity variation showed significant taxa turnover between the eDNA samples on and away from the reefs. In agreement with a spatially localised signal from eDNA, benthic species were distributed closer to the reef than pelagic ones. Our findings demonstrate that the combination of eDNA inventories and spatial modelling can provide insights into species habitat preferences related to distance-to-reef gradients at a small scale. As such, eDNA can not only recover large compositional differences among islands but also help understand habitat selection and distribution of marine species at a finer spatial scale., Competing Interests: The authors declare there are no conflicts of interests., (© 2024 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The Convention on Biological Diversity seeks to conserve at least 30% of global land and water areas by 2030, which is a challenge but also an opportunity to better preserve biodiversity, including flowering plants (angiosperms). Herein, we compiled a large database on distributions of over 300,000 angiosperm species and the key functional traits of 67,024 species. Using this database, we constructed biodiversity-environment models to predict global patterns of taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity in terrestrial angiosperms and provide a comprehensive mapping of the three diversity facets. We further evaluated the current protection status of the biodiversity centers of these diversity facets. Our results showed that geographical patterns of the three facets of plant diversity exhibited substantial spatial mismatches and nonoverlapping conservation priorities. Idiosyncratic centers of functional diversity, particularly of herbaceous species, were primarily distributed in temperate regions and under weaker protection compared with other biodiversity centers of taxonomic and phylogenetic facets. Our global assessment of multifaceted biodiversity patterns and centers highlights the insufficiency and unbalanced conservation among the three diversity facets and the two growth forms (woody vs. herbaceous), thus providing directions for guiding the future conservation of global plant diversity., (© 2024. Science China Press.)

Earth's long-term climate is driven by the cycling of carbon between geologic reservoirs and the atmosphere-ocean system. Our understanding of carbon-climate regulation remains incomplete, with large discrepancies remaining between biogeochemical model predictions and the geologic record. Here, we evaluate the importance of the continuous biological climate adaptation of vegetation as a regulation mechanism in the geologic carbon cycle since the establishment of forest ecosystems. Using a model, we show that the vegetation's speed of adaptation to temperature changes through eco-evolutionary processes can strongly influence global rates of organic carbon burial and silicate weathering. Considering a limited thermal adaptation capacity of the vegetation results in a closer balance of reconstructed carbon fluxes into and out of the atmosphere-ocean system, which is a prerequisite to maintain habitable conditions on Earth's surface on a multimillion-year timescale. We conclude that the long-term carbon-climate system is more sensitive to biological dynamics than previously expected, which may help to explain large shifts in Phanerozoic climate.

Bacteria colonize the body of macroorganisms to form associations ranging from parasitic to mutualistic. Endosymbiont and gut symbiont communities are distinct microbiomes whose compositions are influenced by host ecology and evolution. Although the composition of horizontally acquired symbiont communities can correlate to host species identity (i.e. harbor host specificity) and host phylogeny (i.e. harbor phylosymbiosis), we hypothesize that the microbiota structure of vertically inherited symbionts (e.g. endosymbionts like Wolbachia ) is more strongly associated with the host species identity and phylogeny than horizontally acquired symbionts (e.g. most gut symbionts). Here, using 16S metabarcoding on 336 guts from 24 orthopteran species (grasshoppers and crickets) in the Alps, we observed that microbiota correlated to host species identity, i.e. hosts from the same species had more similar microbiota than hosts from different species. This effect was ~5 times stronger for endosymbionts than for putative gut symbionts. Although elevation correlated with microbiome composition, we did not detect phylosymbiosis for endosymbionts and putative gut symbionts: closely related host species did not harbor more similar microbiota than distantly related species. Our findings indicate that gut microbiota of studied orthopteran species is more correlated to host identity and habitat than to the host phylogeny. The higher host specificity in endosymbionts corroborates the idea that-everything else being equal-vertically transmitted microbes harbor stronger host specificity signal, but the absence of phylosymbiosis suggests that host specificity changes quickly on evolutionary time scales., Competing Interests: None declared., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Society for Microbial Ecology.)

Standard and easily accessible cross-thematic spatial databases are key resources in ecological research. In Switzerland, as in many other countries, available data are scattered across computer servers of research institutions and are rarely provided in standard formats (e.g., different extents or projections systems, inconsistent naming conventions). Consequently, their joint use can require heavy data management and geomatic operations. Here, we introduce SWECO25, a Swiss-wide raster database at 25-meter resolution gathering 5,265 layers. The 10 environmental categories included in SWECO25 are: geologic, topographic, bioclimatic, hydrologic, edaphic, land use and cover, population, transportation, vegetation, and remote sensing. SWECO25 layers were standardized to a common grid sharing the same resolution, extent, and geographic coordinate system. SWECO25 includes the standardized source data and newly calculated layers, such as those obtained by computing focal or distance statistics. SWECO25 layers were validated by a data integrity check, and we verified that the standardization procedure had a negligible effect on the output values. SWECO25 is available on Zenodo and is intended to be updated and extended regularly., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Climate projections predict major changes in alpine environments by the end of the 21st century. To avoid climate-induced maladaptation and extinction, many animal populations will either need to move to more suitable habitats or adapt in situ to novel conditions. Since populations of a species exhibit genetic variation related to local adaptation, it is important to incorporate this variation into predictive models to help assess the ability of the species to survive climate change. Here, we evaluate how the adaptive genetic variation of a mountain ungulate-the Northern chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra)-could be impacted by future global warming. Based on genotype-environment association analyses of 429 chamois using a ddRAD sequencing approach, we identified genetic variation associated with climatic gradients across the European Alps. We then delineated adaptive genetic units and projected the optimal distribution of these adaptive groups in the future. Our results suggest the presence of local adaptation to climate in Northern chamois with similar genetic adaptive responses in geographically distant but climatically similar populations. Furthermore, our results predict that future climatic changes will modify the Northern chamois adaptive landscape considerably, with various degrees of maladaptation risk., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The Genetics Society.)

Introduction: In contrast to the dynamics observed in plant/pathogen interactions, endophytic fungi have the capacity to establish enduring associations within their hosts, leading to the development of a mutually beneficial relationship that relies on specialized chemical interactions. Research indicates that the presence of endophytic fungi has the ability to significantly modify the chemical makeup of the host organism. Our hypothesis proposes the existence of a reciprocal exchange of chemical signals between plants and fungi, facilitated by specialized chemical processes that could potentially manifest within the tissues of the host. This research aimed to precisely quantify the portion of the cumulative fungal endophytic community's metabolome detectable within host leaves, and tentatively evaluate its relevance to the host-endophyte interplay. The understory palm Astrocaryum sciophilum (Miq.) Pulle was used as a interesting host plant because of its notable resilience and prolonged life cycle, in a tropical ecosystem., Method: Using advanced metabolome characterization, including UHPLC-HRMS/MS and molecular networking, the study explored enriched metabolomes of both host leaves and 15 endophytic fungi. The intention was to capture a metabolomic "snapshot" of both host and endophytic community, to achieve a thorough and detailed analysis., Results and Discussion: This approach yielded an extended MS-based molecular network, integrating diverse metadata for identifying host- and endophyte-derived metabolites. The exploration of such data (>24000 features in positive ionization mode) enabled effective metabolome comparison, yielding insights into cultivable endophyte chemodiversity and occurrence of common metabolites between the holobiont and its fungal communities. Surprisingly, a minor subset of features overlapped between host leaf and fungal samples despite significant plant metabolome enrichment. This indicated that fungal metabolic signatures produced in vitro remain sparingly detectable in the leaf. Several classes of primary metabolites were possibly shared. Specific fungal metabolites and/or compounds of their chemical classes were only occasionally discernible in the leaf, highlighting endophytes partial contribution to the overall holobiont metabolome. To our knowledge, the metabolomic study of a plant host and its microbiome has rarely been performed in such a comprehensive manner. The general analytical strategy proposed in this paper seems well-adapted for any study in the field of microbial- or microbiome-related MS and can be applied to most host-microbe interactions., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Pellissier, Gaudry, Vilette, Lecoultre, Rutz, Allard, Marcourt, Ferreira Queiroz, Chave, Eparvier, Stien, Gindro and Wolfender.)

Background: Biodiversity exists at different levels of organisation: e.g. genetic, individual, population, species, and community. These levels of organisation all exist within the same system, with diversity patterns emerging across organisational scales through several key processes. Despite this inherent interconnectivity, observational studies reveal that diversity patterns across levels are not consistent and the underlying mechanisms for variable continuity in diversity across levels remain elusive. To investigate these mechanisms, we apply a spatially explicit simulation model to simulate the global diversification of tropical reef fishes at both the population and species levels through emergent population-level processes., Results: We find significant relationships between the population and species levels of diversity which vary depending on both the measure of diversity and the spatial partitioning considered. In turn, these population-species relationships are driven by modelled biological trait parameters, especially the divergence threshold at which populations speciate., Conclusions: To explain variation in multi-level diversity patterns, we propose a simple, yet novel, population-to-species diversity partitioning mechanism through speciation which disrupts continuous diversity patterns across organisational levels. We expect that in real-world systems this mechanism is driven by the molecular dynamics that determine genetic incompatibility, and therefore reproductive isolation between individuals. We put forward a framework in which the mechanisms underlying patterns of diversity across organisational levels are universal, and through this show how variable patterns of diversity can emerge through organisational scale., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Mountains are among the most biodiverse regions on the planet, and how these landforms shape diversification through the interaction of biological traits and geo-climatic dynamics is integral to understanding global biodiversity. In this study, we investigate the dual roles of climate change and mountain uplift on the evolution of a hyper-diverse radiation, Liolaemus lizards, with a spatially explicit model of diversification using a reconstruction of uplift and paleotemperature in central and southern South America. The diversification model captures a hotspot for Liolaemus around 40°S in lineages with low-dispersal ability and narrow niche breadths. Under the model, speciation rates are highest in low latitudes (<35°S) and mid elevations (~1,000 m), while extinction rates are highest at higher latitudes (>35°S) and higher elevations (>2,000 m). Temperature change through the Cenozoic explained variation in speciation and extinction rates through time and across different elevational bands. Our results point to the conditions of mid elevations being optimal for diversification (i.e., Goldilocks Zone), driven by the combination of (1) a complex topography that facilitates speciation during periods of climatic change, and (2) a relatively moderate climate that enables the persistence of ectothermic lineages and buffers species from extinction., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Society for the Study of Evolution (SSE).)

The geographic distribution of plant diversity matches the gradient of habitat heterogeneity from lowlands to mountain regions. However, little is known about how much this relationship is conserved across scales. Using the World Checklist of Vascular Plants and high-resolution biodiversity maps developed by species distribution models, we investigated the associations between species richness and habitat heterogeneity at the scales of Eurasia and the Hengduan Mountains (HDM) in China. Habitat heterogeneity explains seed plant species richness across Eurasia, but the plant species richness of 41/97 HDM families is even higher than expected from fitted statistical relationships. A habitat heterogeneity index combining growing degree days, site water balance, and bedrock type performs better than heterogeneity based on single variables in explaining species richness. In the HDM, the association between heterogeneity and species richness is stronger at larger scales. Our findings suggest that high environmental heterogeneity provides suitable conditions for the diversification of lineages in the HDM. Nevertheless, habitat heterogeneity alone cannot fully explain the distribution of species richness in the HDM, especially in the western HDM, and complementary mechanisms, such as the complex geological history of the region, may have contributed to shaping this exceptional biodiversity hotspot., (© 2023 The Authors. New Phytologist © 2023 New Phytologist Foundation.)

Climate's effect on global biodiversity is typically viewed through the lens of temperature, humidity and resulting ecosystem productivity 1-6 . However, it is not known whether biodiversity depends solely on these climate conditions, or whether the size and fragmentation of these climates are also crucial. Here we shift the common perspective in global biodiversity studies, transitioning from geographic space to a climate-defined multidimensional space. Our findings suggest that larger and more isolated climate conditions tend to harbour higher diversity and species turnover among terrestrial tetrapods, encompassing more than 30,000 species. By considering both the characteristics of climate itself and its geographic attributes, we can explain almost 90% of the variation in global species richness. Half of the explanatory power (45%) may be attributed either to climate itself or to the geography of climate, suggesting a nuanced interplay between them. Our work evolves the conventional idea that larger climate regions, such as the tropics, host more species primarily because of their size 7,8 . Instead, we underscore the integral roles of both the geographic extent and degree of isolation of climates. This refined understanding presents a more intricate picture of biodiversity distribution, which can guide our approach to biodiversity conservation in an ever-changing world., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The metabolome is the biochemical basis of plant form and function, but we know little about its macroecological variation across the plant kingdom. Here, we used the plant functional trait concept to interpret leaf metabolome variation among 457 tropical and 339 temperate plant species. Distilling metabolite chemistry into five metabolic functional traits reveals that plants vary on two major axes of leaf metabolic specialization-a leaf chemical defense spectrum and an expression of leaf longevity. Axes are similar for tropical and temperate species, with many trait combinations being viable. However, metabolic traits vary orthogonally to life-history strategies described by widely used functional traits. The metabolome thus expands the functional trait concept by providing additional axes of metabolic specialization for examining plant form and function.

We demonstrate here that highly sensitive in vitro bioassays for FSH, TSH, and PTH can be set up in mouse Leydig Tumor Cells (mLTC), in addition to the normal LH/CG bioassay, after they were transfected with expression vectors encoding the corresponding Gs Protein-Coupled Receptors (GsPCR), such as FSHR, TSHR, or PTHR. Although the β2 adrenergic receptor is also a GsPCR, its expression in mLTC led to a significant but very low cAMP response compared to those observed with FSH, TSH, or PTH. Similarly, after transfection of the GiPCR MT1 melatonin receptor, we did not observe any inhibitory effect by melatonin of the LH or hCG stimulation. Interestingly, after transfection of mLTC with the human kisspeptin receptor (hKpR), which is a GqPCR, we observed a dose-dependent synergy of 10 -12 -10 -7 M kisspeptin variants with a fixed concentration of 0.3 nM LH or hCG. Without any exogenous receptor transfection, a 2 h preincubation with OT or AVP led to a dose-dependent cAMP response to a fixed dose of LH or hCG. Therefore, highly sensitive in vitro bioassays for various hormones and other GPCR ligands can be set up in mLTC to measure circulating concentrations in only 3-10 µL of blood or other body fluids. Nevertheless, the development of an LHRKO mLTC cell line will be mandatory to obtain strict specificity for these bioassays to eliminate potential cross-reaction with LH or CG.

Floristic regions reflect the geographic organization of floras and provide essential tools for biological studies. Previous global floristic regions are generally based on floristic endemism, lacking a phylogenetic consideration that captures floristic evolution. Moreover, the contribution of tectonic dynamics and historical and current climate to the division of floristic regions remains unknown. Here, by integrating global distributions and a phylogeny of 12,664 angiosperm genera, we update global floristic regions and explore their temporal changes. Eight floristic realms and 16 nested sub-realms are identified. The previously-defined Holarctic, Neotropical and Australian realms are recognized, but Paleotropical, Antarctic and Cape realms are not. Most realms have formed since Paleogene. Geographic isolation induced by plate tectonics dominates the formation of floristic realms, while current/historical climate has little contribution. Our study demonstrates the necessity of integrating distributions and phylogenies in regionalizing floristic realms and the interplay of macroevolutionary and paleogeographic processes in shaping regional floras., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Human impacts such as habitat loss, climate change and biological invasions are radically altering biodiversity, with greater effects projected into the future. Evidence suggests human impacts may differ substantially between terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, but the reasons for these differences are poorly understood. We propose an integrative approach to explain these differences by linking impacts to four fundamental processes that structure communities: dispersal, speciation, species-level selection and ecological drift. Our goal is to provide process-based insights into why human impacts, and responses to impacts, may differ across ecosystem types using a mechanistic, eco-evolutionary comparative framework. To enable these insights, we review and synthesise (i) how the four processes influence diversity and dynamics in terrestrial versus freshwater communities, specifically whether the relative importance of each process differs among ecosystems, and (ii) the pathways by which human impacts can produce divergent responses across ecosystems, due to differences in the strength of processes among ecosystems we identify. Finally, we highlight research gaps and next steps, and discuss how this approach can provide new insights for conservation. By focusing on the processes that shape diversity in communities, we aim to mechanistically link human impacts to ongoing and future changes in ecosystems., (© 2022 The Authors. Ecology Letters published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The European Alps are highly rich in species, but their future may be threatened by ongoing changes in human land use and climate. Here, we reconstructed vegetation, temperature, human impact and livestock over the past ~12,000 years from Lake Sulsseewli, based on sedimentary ancient plant and mammal DNA, pollen, spores, chironomids, and microcharcoal. We assembled a highly-complete local DNA reference library (PhyloAlps, 3923 plant taxa), and used this to obtain an exceptionally rich sedaDNA record of 366 plant taxa. Vegetation mainly responded to climate during the early Holocene, while human activity had an additional influence on vegetation from 6 ka onwards. Land-use shifted from episodic grazing during the Neolithic and Bronze Age to agropastoralism in the Middle Ages. Associated human deforestation allowed the coexistence of plant species typically found at different elevational belts, leading to levels of plant richness that characterise the current high diversity of this region. Our findings indicate a positive association between low intensity agropastoral activities and precipitation with the maintenance of the unique subalpine and alpine plant diversity of the European Alps., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

While aquatic (blue) and terrestrial (green) food webs are parts of the same landscape, it remains unclear whether they respond similarly to shared environmental gradients. We use empirical community data from hundreds of sites across Switzerland and a synthesis of interaction information in the form of a metaweb to show that inferred blue and green food webs have different structural and ecological properties along elevation and among various land-use types. Specifically, in green food webs, their modular structure increases with elevation and the overlap of consumers' diet niche decreases, while the opposite pattern is observed in blue food webs. Such differences between blue and green food webs are particularly pronounced in farmland-dominated habitats, indicating that anthropogenic habitat modification modulates the climatic effects on food webs but differently in blue versus green systems. These findings indicate general structural differences between blue and green food webs and suggest their potential divergent future alterations through land-use or climatic changes., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

What drives ecosystem buildup, diversity, and stability? We assess species arrival and ecosystem changes across 16 millennia by combining regional-scale plant sedimentary ancient DNA from Fennoscandia with near-complete DNA and trait databases. We show that postglacial arrival time varies within and between plant growth forms. Further, arrival times were mainly predicted by adaptation to temperature, disturbance, and light. Major break points in ecological trait diversity were seen between 13.9 and 10.8 calibrated thousand years before the present (cal ka BP), as well as break point in functional diversity at 12.0 cal ka BP, shifting from a state of ecosystem buildup to a state where most habitat types and biotic ecosystem components were in place. Trait and functional diversity stabilized around 8 cal ka BP, after which both remained stable, although changes in climate took place and species inflow continued. Our ecosystem reconstruction indicates a millennial-scale time phase of formation to reach stable and resilient levels of diversity and functioning.

Urbanization poses threats and opportunities for the biodiversity of wild bees. At the same time, cities can harbor diverse wild bee assemblages, partly due to the unique plant assemblages that provide resources. While bee dietary preferences have been investigated in various studies, bee dietary studies have been conducted mostly in nonurban ecosystems and data based on plant visitation observations or palynological techniques. This data set describes the larval food preferences of four wild bee species (i.e., Chelostoma florisomne, Hylaeus communis, Osmia bicornis, and O. cornuta) common in urban areas in five different European cities (i.e., Antwerp, Belgium; Paris, France; Poznan, Poland; Tartu, Estonia; and Zurich, Switzerland). In addition, the data set describes the larval food preferences of individuals from three wild bee genera (i.e., Chelostoma sp., Hylaeus sp., and Osmia sp.) that could not be identified to the species level. These data were obtained from a Europe-level study aimed at understanding the effects of urbanization on biodiversity across different cities and cityscapes and a Swiss project aimed at understanding the effects of urban ecosystems in wild bee feeding behavior. Wild bees were sampled using standardized trap nests at 80 sites (32 in Zurich and 12 in each of the remaining cities), selected following a double gradient of available habitat at local and landscape scales. Larval pollen was obtained from the bee nests and identified using DNA metabarcoding. The data provide the plant composition at the species or genus level preferred by each bee. These unique data can be used for a wide array of research questions, including urban ecology (e.g., diversity of food sources along urban gradients), bee ecology (characterization of bee feeding preferences), or comparative studies on the urban evolution of behavioral traits between urban and nonurban sites. In addition, the data can be used to inform urban planning and conservation strategies, particularly concerning flower resources (e.g., importance of exotic species and, thus, management activities). This data set can be freely used for noncommercial purposes, and this data paper should be cited if the data is used; we request that collaboration with the data set contact person to be considered if this data set represents an important part of the data analyzed in a study., (© 2022 The Authors. Ecology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of The Ecological Society of America.)

Quaternary climate fluctuations can affect speciation in regional biodiversity assembly in two non-mutually exclusive ways: a glacial species pump, where isolation in glacial refugia accelerates allopatric speciation, and adaptive radiation in underused adaptive zones during ice-free periods. We detected biogeographic and genetic signatures associated with both mechanisms in the assembly of the biota of the European Alps. Age distributions of endemic and widespread species within aquatic and terrestrial taxa (amphipods, fishes, amphibians, butterflies and flowering plants) revealed that endemic fish evolved only in lakes, are highly sympatric, and mainly of Holocene age, consistent with adaptive radiation. Endemic amphipods are ancient, suggesting preglacial radiation with limited range expansion and local Pleistocene survival, perhaps facilitated by a groundwater-dwelling lifestyle. Terrestrial endemics are mostly of Pleistocene age and are thus more consistent with the glacial species pump. The lack of evidence for Holocene adaptive radiation in the terrestrial biome is consistent with faster recolonization through range expansion of these taxa after glacial retreats. More stable and less seasonal ecological conditions in lakes during the Holocene may also have contributed to Holocene speciation in lakes. The high proportion of young, endemic species makes the Alpine biota vulnerable to climate change, but the mechanisms and consequences of species loss will likely differ between biomes because of their distinct evolutionary histories.

Differentiation mechanisms are influenced by the properties of the landscape over which individuals interact, disperse and evolve. Here, we investigate how habitat connectivity and habitat heterogeneity affect phenotypic differentiation by formulating a stochastic eco-evolutionary model where individuals are structured over a spatial graph. We combine analytical insights into the eco-evolutionary dynamics with numerical simulations to understand how the graph topology and the spatial distribution of habitat types affect differentiation. We show that not only low connectivity but also heterogeneity in connectivity promotes neutral differentiation, due to increased competition in highly connected vertices. Habitat assortativity, a measure of habitat spatial auto-correlation in graphs, additionally drives differentiation under habitat-dependent selection. While assortative graphs systematically amplify adaptive differentiation, they can foster or depress neutral differentiation depending on the migration regime. By formalising the eco-evolutionary and spatial dynamics of biological populations on graphs, our study establishes fundamental links between landscape features and phenotypic differentiation., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

The documentation of biodiversity distribution through species range identification is crucial for macroecology, biogeography, conservation, and restoration. However, for plants, species range maps remain scarce and often inaccurate. We present a novel approach to map species ranges at a global scale, integrating polygon mapping and species distribution modelling (SDM). We develop a polygon mapping algorithm by considering distances and nestedness of occurrences. We further apply an SDM approach considering multiple modelling algorithms, complexity levels, and pseudo-absence selections to map the species at a high spatial resolution and intersect it with the generated polygons. We use this approach to construct range maps for all 1957 species of Fagales and Pinales with data compilated from multiple sources. We construct high-resolution global species richness maps of these important plant clades, and document diversity hotspots for both clades in southern and south-western China, Central America, and Borneo. We validate the approach with two representative genera, Quercus and Pinus, using previously published coarser range maps, and find good agreement. By efficiently producing high-resolution range maps, our mapping approach offers a new tool in the field of macroecology for studying global species distribution patterns and supporting ongoing conservation efforts., (© 2022 The Authors. New Phytologist © 2022 New Phytologist Foundation.)

High-throughput DNA sequencing is becoming an increasingly important tool to monitor and better understand biodiversity responses to environmental changes in a standardized and reproducible way. Environmental DNA (eDNA) from organisms can be captured in ecosystem samples and sequenced using metabarcoding, but processing large volumes of eDNA data and annotating sequences to recognized taxa remains computationally expensive. Speed and accuracy are two major bottlenecks in this critical step. Here, we evaluated the ability of convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to process short eDNA sequences and associate them with taxonomic labels. Using a unique eDNA data set collected in highly diverse Tropical South America, we compared the speed and accuracy of CNNs with that of a well-known bioinformatic pipeline (OBITools) in processing a small region (60 bp) of the 12S ribosomal DNA targeting freshwater fishes. We found that the taxonomic labels from the CNNs were comparable to those from OBITools, with high correlation levels for the composition of the regional fish fauna. The CNNs enabled the processing of raw fastq files at a rate of approximately 1 million sequences per minute, which was about 150 times faster than with OBITools. Given the good performance of CNNs in the highly diverse ecosystem considered here, the development of more elaborate CNNs promises fast deployment for future biodiversity inventories using eDNA., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Increasing speed and magnitude of global change threaten the world's biodiversity and particularly coral reef fishes. A better understanding of large-scale patterns and processes on coral reefs is essential to prevent fish biodiversity decline but it requires new monitoring approaches. Here, we use environmental DNA metabarcoding to reconstruct well-known patterns of fish biodiversity on coral reefs and uncover hidden patterns on these highly diverse and threatened ecosystems. We analysed 226 environmental DNA (eDNA) seawater samples from 100 stations in five tropical regions (Caribbean, Central and Southwest Pacific, Coral Triangle and Western Indian Ocean) and compared those to 2047 underwater visual censuses from the Reef Life Survey in 1224 stations. Environmental DNA reveals a higher (16%) fish biodiversity, with 2650 taxa, and 25% more families than underwater visual surveys. By identifying more pelagic, reef-associated and crypto-benthic species, eDNA offers a fresh view on assembly rules across spatial scales. Nevertheless, the reef life survey identified more species than eDNA in 47 shared families, which can be due to incomplete sequence assignment, possibly combined with incomplete detection in the environment, for some species. Combining eDNA metabarcoding and extensive visual census offers novel insights on the spatial organization of the richest marine ecosystems.

Insular biodiversity is expected to be regulated differently than continental biota, but their determinants remain to be quantified at a global scale. We evaluated the importance of physical, environmental and historical factors on mammal richness and endemism across 5592 islands worldwide. We fitted generalized linear and mixed models to accommodate variation among biogeographic realms and performed analyses separately for bats and non-volants. Richness on islands ranged from one to 234 species, with up to 177 single island endemics. Diversity patterns were most consistently influenced by the islands' physical characteristics. Area positively affected mammal diversity, in particular the number of non-volant endemics. Island isolation, both current and past, was associated with lower richness but greater endemism. Flight capacity modified the relative importance of past versus current isolation, with bats responding more strongly to current and non-volant mammals to past isolation. Biodiversity relationships with environmental factors were idiosyncratic, with a tendency for greater effects sizes with endemism than richness. The historical climatic change was positively associated with endemism. In line with theory, we found that area and isolation were among the strongest drivers of mammalian biodiversity. Our results support the importance of past conditions on current patterns, particularly of non-volant species.

Assessing the impact of global changes and protection effectiveness is a key step in monitoring marine fishes. Most traditional census methods are demanding or destructive. Nondisturbing and nonlethal approaches based on video and environmental DNA are alternatives to underwater visual census or fishing. However, their ability to detect multiple biodiversity factors beyond traditional taxonomic diversity is still unknown. For bony fishes and elasmobranchs, we compared the performance of eDNA metabarcoding and long-term remote video to assess species' phylogenetic and functional diversity. We used 10 eDNA samples from 30 L of water each and 25 hr of underwater videos over 4 days on Malpelo Island (pacific coast of Colombia), a remote marine protected area. Metabarcoding of eDNA detected 66% more molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs) than species on video. We found 66 and 43 functional entities with a single eDNA marker and videos, respectively, and higher functional richness for eDNA than videos. Despite gaps in genetic reference databases, eDNA also detected a higher fish phylogenetic diversity than videos; accumulation curves showed how 1 eDNA transect detected as much phylogenetic diversity as 25 hr of video. Environmental DNA metabarcoding can be used to affordably, efficiently, and accurately census biodiversity factors in marine systems. Although taxonomic assignments are still limited by species coverage in genetic reference databases, use of MOTUs highlights the potential of eDNA metabarcoding once reference databases have expanded., (© 2021 Society for Conservation Biology.)

Coral reefs are experiencing declines due to climate change and local human impacts. While at a local scale these impacts induce biodiversity loss and shifts in community structure, previous biogeographical analyses recorded consistent taxonomic structure of fish communities across global coral reefs. This suggests that regional communities represent a random subset of the global species and traits pool, whatever their species richness. Using distributional data on 3586 fish species and latest advances in species distribution models, we show marked gradients in the prevalence of size classes and diet categories across the biodiversity gradient. This divergence in trait structure is best explained by reef isolation during past unfavourable climatic conditions, with large and piscivore fishes better represented in isolated areas. These results suggest the risk of a global community re-organization if the ongoing climate-induced reef fragmentation is not halted.

Past environmental changes are expected to have profoundly impacted diversity dynamics through time. While some previous studies showed an association between past climate changes or tectonic events and important shifts in lineage diversification, it is only recently that past environmental changes have been explicitly integrated in diversification models to test their influence on diversification rates. Here, we used a global reconstruction of tropical reef habitat dynamics during the Cenozoic and phylogenetic diversification models to test the influence of (i) major geological events, (ii) reef habitat fragmentation and (iii) reef area on the diversification of 9 major clades of tropical reef fish (Acanthuridae, Balistoidea, Carangoidea, Chaetodontidae, Haemulinae, Holocentridae, Labridae, Pomacentridae and Sparidae). The diversification models revealed a weak association between paleo-habitat changes and diversification dynamics. Specifically, the fragmentation of tropical reef habitats over the Cenozoic was found to be a driver of tropical reef fish diversification for 2 clades. However, overall, our approach did not allow the identification of striking associations between diversification dynamics and paleo-habitat fragmentation in contrast with theoretical model's predictions., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Quantifying fish species diversity in rich tropical marine environments remains challenging. Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding is a promising tool to face this challenge through the filtering, amplification, and sequencing of DNA traces from water samples. However, because eDNA concentration is low in marine environments, the reliability of eDNA to detect species diversity can be limited. Using an eDNA metabarcoding approach to identify fish Molecular Taxonomic Units (MOTUs) with a single 12S marker, we aimed to assess how the number of sampling replicates and filtered water volume affect biodiversity estimates. We used a paired sampling design of 30 L per replicate on 68 reef transects from 8 sites in 3 tropical regions. We quantified local and regional sampling variability by comparing MOTU richness, compositional turnover, and compositional nestedness. We found strong turnover of MOTUs between replicated pairs of samples undertaken in the same location, time, and conditions. Paired samples contained non-overlapping assemblages rather than subsets of one another. As a result, non-saturated localized diversity accumulation curves suggest that even 6 replicates (180 L) in the same location can underestimate local diversity (for an area <1 km). However, sampling regional diversity using ~25 replicates in variable locations (often covering 10 s of km) often saturated biodiversity accumulation curves. Our results demonstrate variability of diversity estimates possibly arising from heterogeneous distribution of eDNA in seawater, highly skewed frequencies of eDNA traces per MOTU, in addition to variability in eDNA processing. This high compositional variability has consequences for using eDNA to monitor temporal and spatial biodiversity changes in local assemblages. Avoiding false-negative detections in future biomonitoring efforts requires increasing replicates or sampled water volume to better inform management of marine biodiversity using eDNA., Competing Interests: None declared., (© 2021 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Far from a uniform band, the biodiversity found across Earth's tropical moist forests varies widely between the high diversity of the Neotropics and Indomalaya and the relatively lower diversity of the Afrotropics. Explanations for this variation across different regions, the "pantropical diversity disparity" (PDD), remain contentious, due to difficulty teasing apart the effects of contemporary climate and paleoenvironmental history. Here, we assess the ubiquity of the PDD in over 150,000 species of terrestrial plants and vertebrates and investigate the relationship between the present-day climate and patterns of species richness. We then investigate the consequences of paleoenvironmental dynamics on the emergence of biodiversity gradients using a spatially explicit model of diversification coupled with paleoenvironmental and plate tectonic reconstructions. Contemporary climate is insufficient in explaining the PDD; instead, a simple model of diversification and temperature niche evolution coupled with paleoaridity constraints is successful in reproducing the variation in species richness and phylogenetic diversity seen repeatedly among plant and animal taxa, suggesting a prevalent role of paleoenvironmental dynamics in combination with niche conservatism. The model indicates that high biodiversity in Neotropical and Indomalayan moist forests is driven by complex macroevolutionary dynamics associated with mountain uplift. In contrast, lower diversity in Afrotropical forests is associated with lower speciation rates and higher extinction rates driven by sustained aridification over the Cenozoic. Our analyses provide a mechanistic understanding of the emergence of uneven diversity in tropical moist forests across 110 Ma of Earth's history, highlighting the importance of deep-time paleoenvironmental legacies in determining biodiversity patterns., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interest., (Copyright © 2021 the Author(s). Published by PNAS.)

Generating genomic data for 19 tropical reef fish species of the Western Indian Ocean, we investigate how species ecology influences genetic diversity patterns from local to regional scales. We distinguish between the α , β and γ components of genetic diversity, which we subsequently link to six ecological traits. We find that the α and γ components of genetic diversity are strongly correlated so that species with a high total regional genetic diversity display systematically high local diversity. The α and γ diversity components are negatively associated with species abundance recorded using underwater visual surveys and positively associated with body size. Pelagic larval duration is found to be negatively related to genetic β diversity supporting its role as a dispersal trait in marine fishes. Deviation from the neutral theory of molecular evolution motivates further effort to understand the processes shaping genetic diversity and ultimately the diversification of the exceptional diversity of tropical reef fishes.

The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the "critical priority pathogens" due to its multidrug resistance to a wide range of antibiotics. Its ability to invade and damage host tissues is due to the use of quorum sensing (QS) to collectively produce a plethora of virulence factors. Inhibition of QS is an attractive strategy for new antimicrobial agents because it disrupts the initial events of infection without killing the pathogen. Highly diverse microorganisms as endophytes represent an under-explored source of bioactive natural products, offering opportunities for the discovery of novel QS inhibitors (QSI). In the present work, the objective was to explore selective QSIs within a unique collection of fungal endophytes isolated from the tropical palm Astrocaryum sciophilum . The fungi were cultured, extracted, and screened for their antibacterial and specific anti-QS activities against P. aeruginosa . The endophytic strain Lasiodiplodia venezuelensis was prioritized for scaled-up fractionation for its selective activity, leading to the isolation of eight compounds in a single step. Among them, two pyran-derivatives were found to be responsible for the QSI activity, with an effect on some QS-regulated virulence factors. Additional non-targeted metabolomic studies on P. aeruginosa documented their effects on the production of various virulence-related metabolites.

Herbal preparations (HPs) used in folk medicine are complex mixtures of natural products (NPs). Their efficacy in vivo after ingestion depends on the uptake of the active ingredient, and, in some cases, their metabolites, in the gastrointestinal tract. Thus, correlating bioactivities measured in vitro and efficacy in vivo is a challenge. An extract of Pueraria lobata rich in different types of isoflavones was used to evaluate the capacity of viable porcine small intestine ex vivo to elucidate the absorption of HP constituents, and, in some cases, their metabolites. The identification and transport of permeants across the jejunum was monitored by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), combining targeted and untargeted metabolite profiling approaches. It was observed that the C-glycoside isoflavones were stable and crossed the intestinal membrane, while various O-glycoside isoflavones were metabolized into their corresponding aglycones, which were then absorbed. These results are consistent with human data, highlighting the potential of using this approach. A thorough investigation of the impact of absorption and biotransformation was obtained without in vivo studies. The combination of qualitative untargeted and quantitative targeted LC-MS methods effectively monitored a large number of NPs and their metabolites, which is essential for research on HPs.

The Wnt signaling pathway controls multiple events during embryonic development of multicellular animals and is carcinogenic when aberrantly activated in adults. Breast cancers are dependent on Wnt pathway overactivation mostly through dysregulation of pathway component protein expression, which necessitates the search for therapeutically relevant compounds targeting them. Highly diverse microorganisms as endophytes represent an underexplored field in the therapeutic natural products research. In the present work, the objective was to explore the chemical diversity and presence of selective Wnt inhibitors within a unique collection of fungi isolated as foliar endophytes from the long-lived tropical palm Astrocaryum sciophilum . The fungi were cultured, extracted with ethyl acetate, and screened for their effects on the Wnt pathway and cell proliferation. The endophytic strain Lasiodiplodia venezuelensis was prioritized for scaled-up fractionation based on its selective activity. Application of geometric transfer from analytical HPLC conditions to semi-preparative scale and use of dry load sample introduction enabled the isolation of 15 pure compounds in a single step. Among the molecules identified, five are original natural products described for the first time, and six are new to this species. An active fraction obtained by semi-preparative HPLC was re-purified by UHPLC-PDA using a 1.7 µm phenyl column. 75 injections of 8 µg were necessary to obtain sufficient amounts of each compound for structure elucidation and bioassays. Using this original approach, in addition to the two major compounds, a third minor compound identified as ( R )-(-)-5-hydroxymellein (18) was obtained, which was found to be responsible for the significant Wnt inhibition activity recorded. Further studies of this compound and its structural analogs showed that only 18 acts in a highly specific manner, with no acute cytotoxicity. This compound is notably selective for upstream components of the Wnt pathway and is able to inhibit the proliferation of three triple negative breast cancer cell lines. In addition to the discovery of Wnt inhibitors of interest, this study contributes to better characterize the biosynthetic potential of L. venezuelensis ., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Pellissier, Koval, Marcourt, Ferreira Queiroz, Lecoultre, Leoni, Quiros-Guerrero, Barthélémy, Duivelshof, Guillarme, Tardy, Eparvier, Perron, Chave, Stien, Gindro, Katanaev and Wolfender.)

Understanding the origins of biodiversity has been an aspiration since the days of early naturalists. The immense complexity of ecological, evolutionary, and spatial processes, however, has made this goal elusive to this day. Computer models serve progress in many scientific fields, but in the fields of macroecology and macroevolution, eco-evolutionary models are comparatively less developed. We present a general, spatially explicit, eco-evolutionary engine with a modular implementation that enables the modeling of multiple macroecological and macroevolutionary processes and feedbacks across representative spatiotemporally dynamic landscapes. Modeled processes can include species' abiotic tolerances, biotic interactions, dispersal, speciation, and evolution of ecological traits. Commonly observed biodiversity patterns, such as α, β, and γ diversity, species ranges, ecological traits, and phylogenies, emerge as simulations proceed. As an illustration, we examine alternative hypotheses expected to have shaped the latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG) during the Earth's Cenozoic era. Our exploratory simulations simultaneously produce multiple realistic biodiversity patterns, such as the LDG, current species richness, and range size frequencies, as well as phylogenetic metrics. The model engine is open source and available as an R package, enabling future exploration of various landscapes and biological processes, while outputs can be linked with a variety of empirical biodiversity patterns. This work represents a key toward a numeric, interdisciplinary, and mechanistic understanding of the physical and biological processes that shape Earth's biodiversity., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Biodiversity monitoring delivers vital information to those making conservation decisions. Comprehensively measuring terrestrial biodiversity usually requires costly methods that can rarely be deployed at large spatial scales over multiple time periods, limiting conservation efficiency. Here we investigated the capacity of environmental DNA (eDNA) from stream water samples to survey terrestrial mammal diversity at multiple spatial scales within a large catchment. We compared biodiversity information recovered using an eDNA metabarcoding approach with data from a dense camera trap survey, as well as the sampling costs of both methods. Via the sampling of large volumes of water from the two largest streams that drained the study area, eDNA metabarcoding provided information on the presence and detection probabilities of 35 mammal taxa, 25% more than camera traps and for half the cost. While eDNA metabarcoding had limited capacity to detect felid species and provide individual-level demographic information, it is a cost-efficient method for large-scale monitoring of terrestrial mammals that can offer sufficient information to solve many conservation problems.

Land-use intensification poses major threats to biodiversity, such as to insect herbivore communities. The stability of these communities depends on interactions linking herbivores and host plants. How interaction network structure begets robustness, and thus stability, in different ecosystems and how network structure and robustness are altered along land-use intensity gradients are unclear. We analyzed plant-herbivore networks based on literature-derived interactions and long-term sampling from 289 grasslands and forests in three regions of Germany. Network size and nestedness were the most important determinants of network robustness in both ecosystems. Along land-use intensity gradients, networks in moderately grazed grasslands were more robust than in those managed by frequent mowing or fertilization. In forests, changes of network robustness along land-use intensity gradients relied on changes in plant species richness. Our results expand our knowledge of the stability of plant-herbivore networks and indicate options for management aimed at stabilizing herbivore communities., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial License 4.0 (CC BY-NC).)

It has long been anticipated that relating functional traits to species demography would be a cornerstone for achieving large-scale predictability of ecological systems. If such a relationship existed, species demography could be modeled only by measuring functional traits, transforming our ability to predict states and dynamics of species-rich communities with process-based community models. Here, we introduce a new method that links empirical functional traits with the demographic parameters of a process-based model by calibrating a transfer function through inverse modeling. As a case study, we parameterize a modified Lotka-Volterra model of a high-diversity mountain grassland with static plant community and functional trait data only. The calibrated trait-demography relationships are amenable to ecological interpretation, and lead to species abundances that fit well to the observed community structure. We conclude that our new method offers a general solution to bridge the divide between trait data and process-based models in species-rich ecosystems.

Monitoring large marine mammals is challenging due to their low abundances in general, an ability to move over large distances and wide geographical range sizes.The distribution of the pygmy ( Kogia breviceps ) and dwarf ( Kogia sima ) sperm whales is informed by relatively rare sightings, which does not permit accurate estimates of their distribution ranges. Hence, their conservation status has long remained Data Deficient (DD) in the Red list of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), which prevent appropriate conservation measures.Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding uses DNA traces left by organisms in their environments to detect the presence of targeted taxon, and is here proved to be useful to increase our knowledge on the distribution of rare but emblematic megafauna.Retrieving eDNA from filtered surface water provides the first detection of the Dwarf sperm whale ( Kogia sima ) around the remote Malpelo island (Colombia).Environmental DNA collected during oceanic missions can generate better knowledge on rare but emblematic animals even in regions that are generally well sampled for other taxa., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interest., (© 2020 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

To cope with environmental challenges, plants produce a wide diversity of phytochemicals, which are also the source of numerous medicines. Despite decades of research in chemical ecology, we still lack an understanding of the organization of plant chemical diversity across species and ecosystems. To address this challenge, we hypothesized that molecular diversity is not only related to species diversity, but also constrained by trophic, climatic, and topographical factors. We screened the metabolome of 416 vascular plant species encompassing the entire alpine elevation range and four alpine bioclimatic regions in order to characterize their phytochemical diversity. We show that by coupling phylogenetic information, topographic, edaphic, and climatic variables, we predict phytochemical diversity, and its inherent composition, of plant communities throughout landscape. Spatial mapping of phytochemical diversity further revealed that plant assemblages found in low to midelevation habitats, with more alkaline soils, possessed greater phytochemical diversity, whereas alpine habitats possessed higher phytochemical endemism. Altogether, we present a general tool that can be used for predicting hotspots of phytochemical diversity in the landscape, independently of plant species taxonomic identity. Such an approach offers promising perspectives in both drug discovery programs and conservation efforts worldwide., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interest.