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PurposeThe purpose of the present anatomical study was to define the exact morphology of the posterior fibulotalocalcaneal ligament complex (PFTCLC), both for a better orientation and understanding of the anatomy, especially during hindfoot endoscopy.MethodsTwenty-three fresh frozen specimens were dissected in order to clarify the morphology of the PFTCLC.ResultsIn all specimens, the ligament originated from the posteromedial border of the lateral malleolus between the posterior tibiofibular ligament (superior border) and the calcaneofibular ligament (CFL), (inferior border). This origin functions as the floor for the peroneal tendon sheath. The origin of the PFTCLC can be subdivided into two parts, a superior and inferior part. The superior part forms an aponeurosis with the superior peroneal retinaculum and the lateral septum of the Achilles tendon. From this structure, two independent laminae can be identified. The inferior part of the origin has no role in the aponeurosis and ligamentous fibres run obliquely to insert in the lateral surface of the calcaneus, in the same orientation as the CFL, but slightly more posterior, which was a consistent finding in all examined specimens. The PFTCLC is maximally tensed with ankle dorsiflexion and is located within the fascia of the deep posterior compartment of the leg.ConclusionsThe PFTCLC is part of the normal anatomy of the hindfoot and therefore should be routinely recognized and partly released to achieve access to the posterior ankle anatomical pathology, relevant for hindfoot endoscopy. The origin of the ligament complex forms the floor for the peroneal tendon sheath. The superior part of the origin plays a role in the formation of an aponeurosis with the superior peroneal retinaculum and the lateral septum of the Achilles tendon.

Purpose: A thorough understanding of the arthroscopic anatomy is important to recognise pathological conditions. Although some ankle ligaments have been described as intra-articular structures, no studies have assessed the full visibility of these structures. The purpose of this study was to assess arthroscopic visibility of medial and lateral ankle collateral ligaments. Methods: Arthroscopy was performed in 20 fresh frozen ankles. The arthroscope was introduced through the anteromedial portal and the anterior compartment was explored in ankle dorsiflexion without distraction. Intra-articular structures were tagged using a suture-passer introduced percutaneously and they were listed in a table according to the surgeon’s identification. After the arthroscopic procedure, the ankles were dissected to identify the suture-tagged structures. Results: According to the suture-tagged structures, 100% correlation was found between arthroscopy and dissection. In the anterior compartment, the superior fascicle of the anterior talofibular ligament, the distal fascicle of the anterior tibiofibular ligament and the anterior tibiotalar ligament on the medial side were observed. The deep fascicle of the posterior tibiofibular ligament and the intermalleolar ligament were tagged at the posterior compartment. Conclusion: Ankle dorsiflexion and non-distraction arthroscopic technique allows full visualisation of the medial and lateral ankle collateral ligaments: the superior fascicle of the anterior talofibular ligament, the distal fascicle of the anterior tibiofibular ligament and the anterior tibiotalar ligament. When using distraction, posterior structures as the deep fascicle of the posterior tibiofibular ligament and the intermalleolar ligament can be observed with anterior arthroscopy.

Purpose: Despite the increased use of ankle dorsiflexion without distraction, no reports have specifically addressed the arthroscopic anatomy of the ankle in this position. The purpose of this study was to describe the normal arthroscopic anatomy of the ankle joint, when using the ankle dorsiflexion and the dynamic distraction technique, and to propose an arthroscopic examination system for the anterior ankle compartment. Methods: Ankle arthroscopy was performed in 20 fresh frozen specimens. Arthroscopic examination was performed with the arthroscope introduced through the anteromedial portal. The anterior compartment was examined in ankle dorsiflexion without distraction. The compartment was examined in four steps: (1) lateral area including the lateral gutter; (2) the central area of the anterior tibial rim; (3) the medial area including the medial gutter; (4) the talar neck. Next, distraction was applied to visualise the anterior compartment again and to examine the central and posterior ankle compartments. Results: Anatomic intra-articular structures were visualised in all specimens. Four intra-articular fat pads, one anteromedial, two syndesmotic and another posteromedial, were constantly observed. A description of the normal arthroscopic anatomy of the ankle using the ankle dorsiflexion and the dynamic distraction technique is detailed for the anterior, central and posterior compartments. Conclusion: The ankle arthroscopic procedure without distraction allows constant visualisation of the ATFL’s superior fascicle on the floor of the lateral gutter, the ATiFL’s distal fascicle laterally and the most anterior margin of the deltoid ligament in the medial gutter (anterior tibiotalar ligament). However, ankle distraction is required to observe the central and posterior compartments, but it does not provide optimal visualisation of the anterior ankle compartment structures. Level of evidence: V.

Arthroscopic techniques for the treatment of ankle instability are increasing. The possibility of treating concomitant ankle pathology and ankle instability in the same procedure with similar outcomes and minor complications is making foot and ankle surgeons rethink the role of the current gold standard technique, the open Brostrom-Gould procedure. The improvement of arthroscopic procedures in the ankle joint, as has happened before in other joints, is forcing the evolution of the classic open gold standard techniques toward an arthroscopic approach. A nondistraction and ankle dorsiflexion procedure is the key arthroscopic technique. The anterior talofibular ligament's superior fascicle, an intra-articular structure, is located on the floor of the lateral gutter, and distraction detrimentally narrows the view and access to this space.

Purpose: To assess the effectiveness of cadaveric ankle arthroscopy courses in reducing iatrogenic injuries. Methods: A total of 60 novice surgeons enrolled in a basic cadaveric ankle arthroscopy course were divided into two groups. Group A (n = 32) was lectured on portal placement and use of the arthroscope, whereas group B (n = 28) was in addition lectured on specific portal-related complications. Following the performance of anterior ankle arthroscopy and hindfoot endoscopy, the specimens were dissected and carefully assessed for detection of any iatrogenic injuries. Results: The rate of injury to the superficial peroneal nerve (SPN) was reduced from 25 to 3.6%, in group A compared with B (p = 0.033). Injuries to the peroneus tertius or extensor digitorum longus, the flexor hallucis longus and the tibial nerve or the Achilles tendon were also reduced in group B. Overall, the number of uninjured specimens was 50% (n = 30) and higher in group B (57%) than group A (44%). Lesions to the plantaris tendon, the sural nerve or the posterior tibial artery were more common in group B, however, without reaching statistical significance. Overall, 25 (13.9%) anatomic structures were injured in anterior arthroscopy compared to 18 (5%) in hindfoot endoscopy, out of a potential total of 180 and 360, respectively (p = 0.001). Conclusion: Dedicated lectures on portal-related complications have proven useful in reducing the risk of injury to the SPN, the commonest iatrogenic injury encountered in ankle arthroscopy. Hindfoot endoscopy is significantly safer than anterior ankle arthroscopy in terms of injury to anatomical structures.

The growing popularity of minimally invasive surgical (MIS) procedures makes it necessary that new anatomical references arise, to aid in tridimensional orientation and localization of structures that are not directly visible to the surgeon. This is especially critical for structures at risk like nerves or blood vessels. Optimization of the handling of cadaveric material and the combination of multiple techniques compensate for the limited availability of adequate specimens. The described protocol combines anatomical plane-by-plane dissection and sectional anatomy of fresh-frozen specimens to help localize relevant structures, such as nerves, arteries, veins and to correctly position the portals during MIS procedures. Depiction of these structures in anatomy textbooks can differ from what is encountered in the surgical field; and for this reason, new anatomical studies with a surgical orientation are needed. However, this is a complex, time-consuming technique requiring specific training. The anatomical references described with the so-called 'clock method' provide the surgeon with an easy and reproducible system to locate the path of the nerves at risk in Hallux Valgus MIS procedures. This model can be extrapolated to many other minimally invasive surgical procedures.

Background The purpose of this study is to describe a simple and reproducible method to localize the neurological structures at risk and to describe a safe zone for hallux minimally invasive surgery (MIS) procedures. Methods Ten fresh-frozen cadaveric feet were dissected to identify the dorsomedial digital nerve (DMDN) and the dorsolateral digital nerve (DLDN) of the first toe. Axial sections were performed at the sites of metatarsal osteotomies. We documented the position of the nerves with respect to the extensor hallucis longus (EHL) tendon using a clock method superimposed on the axial section Results The DMDN was found at an average of 26.2° medial to the medial border of the EHL tendon. (SD 11.26, range 14.5–45.5), whereas the average distance of the DLDN was 32.3° lateral to the medial border of the EHL tendon. (SD 6.29, range 13.5–40). Conclusions Using the clock method the DMDN and DLDN were found consistently between 10 o'clock and 2 o'clock in either right and left feet. The clock method may facilitate avoiding the area where these nerves are located serving as a valuable tool in minimally invasive foot surgery.

SUMMARY: A bipartite medial cuneiform is an anatomical variant consisting in a horizontal division of the bone. Previous descriptions of the joint type, obtained from archaeological material or clinical reports, are unclear. This study was conducted in a fresh-frozen left foot, which allowed studying the morphology of the ligaments after anatomical dissection. In addition a Micro-CT analysis was performed to elucidate the osseous structure supporting the articular surfaces. A complex ligamentous system was found between the two halves of the bipartite medial cuneiform. Two articular surfaces were observed between the two components. Hyaline cartilage was observed at the posterior surface, while fibrous tissue was found at the anterior surface. Micro-CT analysis revealed different osseous structures for each articular surface, thus proving the existence of two joint types. The finding of a bipartite medial cuneiform in a fresh-frozen specimen allowed us to perform an analysis of the soft-tissues and articular surfaces that shows the presence of hyaline cartilage and articular ligaments in the diarthrodial joint as well as the fibrous component of the synfibrosis. Micro-CT analysis further reinforces our morphological findings. Our results prove that two different joint types exist, which could help explaining the disparity of descriptions in the literature.

Endoscopy for the posterior region of the ankle through two portals is becoming more widespread for the treatment of a large number of conditions which used to be treated with open surgery years ago. The tendon of theflexor hallucis longus(FHL) travels along an osteofibrous tunnel between the posterolateral and posteromedial tubercles of the talus. Chronic inflammation of this tendon may lead to painful stenosing tenosynovitis. The aim of this report is to describe two cases depicting an accessory tendon which is an anatomical variation of theflexor hallucis longusin patients with posterior friction syndrome due to posterior ankle impingement and associated with a posteromedial osteochondral lesion of the talus. The anatomical variation (FDAL) described was a finding during an endoscopy of the posterior region of the ankle, and we have spared it by sectioning the superior flexor retinaculum only. The accessory flexor digitorum longus is an anatomical variation and should be taken into account when performing an arthroscopy of the posterior region of the ankle. We recommend this treatment on this type of injury although we admit this does not make a definite conclusion.

El esguince de tobillo es una de las lesiones más comunes en ortopedia. El mecanismo más habitual de lesión es una entorsis en inversión del pie. Con este mecanismo, el complejo ligamentario lateral del tobillo se lesiona. La mayoría de los pacientes con esguince agudo de tobillo pueden ser manejados con éxito con un tratamiento conservador. Sin embargo, muchos pacientes sufren síntomas residuales que incluyen dolor crónico e inestabilidad.La artroscopia en el tobillo sigue evolucionando. Se han observado lesiones intraarticulares durante la artroscopia de tobillo en pacientes afectos de dolor anterolateral tras un esguince de tobillo, o en la inestabilidad crónica de tobillo. Estos hallazgos artroscópicos sugieren la presencia de una microinestabilidad o inestabilidad oculta de tobillo en algunos pacientes, o de una inestabilidad rotatoria del tobillo en pacientes con síntomas crónicos de inestabilidad. Recientemente se han descrito técnicas artroscópicas para el tratamiento de la inestabilidad lateral del tobillo con resultados excelentes.El objetivo de este trabajo es dar a los lectores una revisión completa sobre las novedades relacionadas con la inestabilidad crónica del tobillo.Ankle sprain is one of the most common disorders among orthopaedic patients. The most common mechanism of injury is an inversion movement of the foot. With this mechanism, the lateral ligament complex of the ankle is injured. Most patients with acute ankle sprains can be successfully managed with conservative treatment. However, many patients report residual symptoms, including chronic pain and instability.Arthroscopy in the ankle continues to evolve. Intra-articular pathological findings have been observed during ankle arthroscopy in patients affected by anterolateral pain after an ankle sprain or chronic ankle instability. These findings suggest the presence of a microinstability or occult ankle instability in some patients, or a rotational ankle instability in patients with chronic instability symptoms. Recently, arthroscopic techniques have been described to treat lateral ankle instability with excellent results.The aim of this paper is to provide the readers a comprehensive review of innovations regarding the chronic ankle instability.

Background Ankle instability is a common consequence of ankle sprains. Injury of the anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) is the most common cause of ankle instability1. Arthroscopic treatment of ankle instability is an emerging field attracting increased interest among surgeons2-10. The arthroscopic all-inside ATFL repair allows the surgeon to explore the ankle joint, treat concomitant pathology when encountered, and reattach the injured ATFL to its fibular anatomical location. The aim of this article is to describe the arthroscopic all-inside ATFL repair through a 3-portal no-ankle-distraction technique. Description After patient positioning, anteromedial and anterolateral portals are created. An accessory anterolateral portal is created just anterior to the fibula and about 1 cm proximal to the tip of the lateral malleolus. The arthroscope is introduced through the anteromedial portal, and the instruments are introduced through the anterolateral portal. Recognition of the ligament and evaluation of the ligament tear with a probe are required. The footprint for the fibular attachment of the ATFL is debrided. The ligament is penetrated with a suture passer. A nitinol loop is pushed and then is pulled out through the accessory portal. The nitinol wire is replaced by a double high-resistance suture. The limbs of the suture located in the accessory portal are passed through the anterolateral portal. Next, one or both limbs of the suture are passed through the loop suture. Pulling of the suture limbs introduces the loop into the joint and the ligament is grasped by the suture. The tunnel for the anchor is drilled. The knotless anchor is loaded with the suture, and the anchor and suture are introduced with the ankle in dorsiflexion and valgus. Postoperatively, the ankle is immobilized with a removable walking boot for 4 weeks. Once use of the walking boot is discontinued, physical therapy is started. Alternatives Nonoperative treatment with physiotherapy or sports restriction can be an alternative for patients with surgical contraindications or as a first step of treatment. Open techniques (repair or reconstruction) or other arthroscopic-assisted techniques (arthroscopic introduction of anchors and percutaneous passage of sutures, or arthroscopic-assisted reconstruction) are possible surgical alternatives to the described technique to treat ankle instability. Rationale The described technique has the advantage of being done with a minimally invasive approach and providing an anatomical repair of the ligament. Concomitant intra-articular pathology can be addressed during the procedure through the same arthroscopic approaches. Early rehabilitation and the lack of intra-articular knots are additional benefits of the technique.

Introduccion El objetivo de este estudio es presentar una nueva tecnica artroscopica que permite el tratamiento de pacientes con dolor femoro-rotuliano, y nuestra experiencia y los primeros resultados de la denervacion rotuliana artroscopica. Material y metodo Se presentan 10 pacientes (8 mujeres y 2 hombres; media de 33 anos) con dolor femoro-rotuliano y sin causas evidentes que justifiquen su clinica, tratados mediante denervacion rotuliana artroscopica. Resultado Se ha conseguido una mejoria significativa clinica y funcional en todos los casos. A los 6 meses todos los pacientes habian vuelto a sus actividades cotidianas sin dificultad, incluida la practica deportiva sin limitaciones. A los dos anos de evolucion no se han observado cambios clinicos. Conclusiones La denervacion rotuliana artroscopica es una alternativa valida de tratamiento para aquellos casos que presentan dolor femoro-rotuliano sin alteraciones evidentes. La tecnica que se describe es sencilla y segura; al igual que todas las tecnicas artroscopicas presenta una escasa morbilidad. A pesar de los buenos resultados el numero de pacientes es escaso y es necesario completar el estudio.

Introduction This study presents a new arthroscopic technique for the treatment of patients with patellofemoral pain together with our experience of the procedure and the preliminary results of arthroscopic patellar denervation in patients with intractable patellofemoral pain we have obtained. Materials and methods Ten patients with patellofemoral pain and no evident alterations (8 women, 2 men; mean age 33 years) were treated by arthroscopic patellar denervation, involving a thermal lesion to the peripatellar soft tissue. Results Considerable functional improvement was obtained in all cases. At six months after the procedure, all patients had resumed their normal daily activities and the younger patients were able to do sports without difficulty. None of the patients showed any clinical changes during the two-year follow-up period. Conclusions Patellar denervation may be the solution for cases of intractable patellofemoral pain without evident alterations. The technique described in this study is simple to perform and safe. As with other arthroscopic procedures, morbidity is low. This is a preliminary study in a small number of patients, but the results warrant further study with a control group and long-term follow up.

Understanding the anatomy of the ankle ligaments is important for correct diagnosis and treatment. Ankle ligament injury is the most frequent cause of acute ankle pain. Chronic ankle pain often finds its cause in laxity of one of the ankle ligaments. In this pictorial essay, the ligaments around the ankle are grouped, depending on their anatomic orientation, and each of the ankle ligaments is discussed in detail.

Las lesiones osteocondrales del astrágalo son causa frecuente de dolor crónico del tobillo.ObjetivoValorar la influencia de la localización y otros factores intrínsecos y extrínsecos de la lesión con el resultado funcional posquirúrgico.Material y métodosSe estudiaron 47 pacientes diagnosticados de lesión osteocondral tratados con injerto osteocondral autólogo. Se evaluó el estado funcional postoperatorio por medio de la puntuación Kitaoka-AOFAS a los 11 meses de la cirugía y al final del seguimiento (mediana: 67 meses).ResultadosEl 45% de las lesiones se localizaron en la zona 4. Las lesiones localizadas en la zona 4, las ≥ 150mm2, las de ≥10mm de profundidad y en las que se utilizaron 3 cilindros presentaron un empeoramiento funcional en la evaluación a los 67 meses comparada con la de los 11 meses (p