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New Zealand apple exports must meet strict phytosanitary measures to eliminate codling moth (Cydia pomonella Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) larval infestation. This study was part of a program attempting the localized eradication of codling moth within an isolated cluster of seven orchards (391 ha). A conventional management program of insecticide sprays and pheromone mating disruption was supplemented with weekly releases of sterile moths for 1–6 yr. Our objective was to compare the recapture rate of sterile moths following their release by four methods, and the efficiency of each system. The methods were the following: a fixed-wing unmanned plane flying ~40–45 m high at 70 km/h, an unmanned hexacopter travelling 20 m high at 25 km/h, and manually from the ground via bicycles or motor vehicles. The different release methods were used in different years or weeks. Sterile male moths were recaptured in grids of pheromone traps positioned throughout each orchard. The highest recapture rate followed delivery by hexacopter, then bicycle, vehicle, and plane. There was a 17-fold difference in catches between releases by hexacopter and plane, and sixfold between vehicle and plane in the same season. Bicycle delivery had a 3.5-fold higher recapture rate than the plane in different years. The wind-borne horizontal drift of moths was investigated as a possible explanation for the disparity of recaptures between the two aircraft delivery systems. The methods in ascending order of time per hectare for delivery were the following: plane and vehicle, hexacopter, then bicycle. The advantages and disadvantages of each moth delivery method are discussed.

Apple leafcurling midge (ALCM) is an important quarantine pest of New Zealand apples. Current methods for ALCM control have difficulty meeting the strict phytosanitary standards of some export markets. ‘Lure and kill’ is a new strategy against this pest, in which males are attracted to an insecticide-treated substrate where they collect a lethal dose. Trials were conducted using a gel matrix “Specialized Pheromone & Lure Application Technology” (SPLATâ„¢) to dispense and release the ALCM sex pheromone and the insecticide permethrin. Lures using SPLATâ„¢ were placed within plastic cylinder traps that collected the dead midges so they could be counted to determine treatment efficacy. The size, shape and age of SPLATâ„¢ spots influenced midge catches. Higher catches occurred with spots having a larger quantity of pheromone, greater surface area of SPLATâ„¢, or with fresh material. The implications for the development of a lure and kill strategy for ALCM are discussed.

Apple leafcurling midge is an important quarantine pest for New Zealand apple exports. Season-long pheromone trapping was conducted in Hawke’s Bay and Nelson from 2004—2017, and from 2012—2017 in Central Otago. Four generations occurred annually in Hawke’s Bay and Nelson and 3—4 in Central Otago. In Hawke’s Bay and Nelson, the timing of each peak varied by about 3—4 weeks between years, while the difference was ~2—3 weeks in Central Otago during fewer years of monitoring. Hawke’s Bay was up to a month earlier than Central Otago for the same peak within individual years. The major factor behind this variability was the accumulated number of growing degree-days. Insecticide sprays target midge larvae, but are timed against the second and third peaks of adult emergence. Variations in the timing of these peaks annually and across the main pipfruit growing regions, mean that specific insecticide timing recommendations are necessary each year for each region.

New, more socially-acceptable technologies are being developed to suppress horticultural pests, because suppression is technically difficult with current technologies, especially in urban areas. One technique involves the release of sterile insects to prevent offspring in the next generation. This technology involves aerial or ground release systems, but this could also create issues for the public. This study investigated community perceptions of a recently-introduced response to codling moth control in New Zealand&mdash, Sterile Insect Technique (SIT). Community attitudes to SIT were examined in Hastings, New Zealand, in April, 2018. Eighty-six detailed interviews were undertaken with a random sample of households. This community was very willing (98% agreement) to host a sex pheromone trap in their gardens, and condoned regular visits to monitor traps. Attitudes to SIT were very positive (98% in favor). Once explained, the concept of using unmanned aerial vehicles to deliver sterile insects was also acceptable (98%) to the community. Use of unmanned aerial vehicles to release sterile insects during a hypothetical incursion response of an exotic fruit fly was also supported at 98% by respondent householders. Investigation of community attitudes can be valuable to guide practitioners in determining suitable technologies before an area-wide programme is launched.

Codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is a phytosanitary pest of New Zealand&rsquo, s export apples. The sterile insect technique supplements other controls in an eradication attempt at an isolated group of orchards in Hawke&rsquo, s Bay, New Zealand. There has been no attempt in New Zealand to characterize potential sources of uncontrolled peri-urban populations, which we predicted to be larger than in managed orchards. We installed 200 pheromone traps across Hastings city, which averaged 0.32 moths/trap/week. We also mapped host trees around the pilot eradication orchards and installed 28 traps in rural Ongaonga, which averaged 0.59 moths/trap/week. In Hastings, traps in host trees caught significantly more males than traps in non-host trees, and spatial interpolation showed evidence of spatial clustering. Traps in orchards operating the most stringent codling moth management averaged half the catch rate of Hastings peri-urban traps. Orchards with less rigorous moth control had a 5-fold higher trap catch rate. We conclude that peri-urban populations are significant and ubiquitous, and that special measures to reduce pest prevalence are needed to achieve area-wide suppression and reduce the risk of immigration into export orchards. Because the location of all host trees in Hastings is not known, it could be more cost-effectively assumed that hosts are ubiquitous across the city and the area treated accordingly.

Export markets require highquality fruit free from insects and mites of quarantine significance and with minimal or no agrichemical residues This presents a challenge for New Zealands pipfruit sector when developing novel pest management systems to meet these market requirements Brushbed apple washers are an important component of a systems approach to remove insects and mites in packhouses before fruit are exported A new apple washer using multinozzle rotors significantly reduced the incidence of insects and mites on apples Weathered residues of kaolin and hydrated lime were similarly reduced by this apple washer Assessment of fruit quality after apple washing and cool storage did not identify any commercially significant quality issues on the three apple cultivars examined Apple washer design to optimise pest removal from all locations on the fruit is discussed

The sterile insect technique (SIT) is increasingly being evaluated as a potential complementary strategy for pest suppression or elimination New Zealands export fruit sector has an imperative to meet strict international phytosanitary requirements together with increasing market demand for residuefree produce SIT is a pestspecific method of insect control that can complement current Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies Successful SIT presents significant challenges the target pest must be a good candidate for suppression and strong stakeholder and community commitment is required to achieve and maintain suppression until areawide elimination is achieved Emerging sterilisation technologies and refinement of existing methods are making this technology progressively more efficient and costeffective This study reviewed the advantages of including SIT in an IPM programme and described the first use of codling moth SIT in New Zealand A pilot programme is currently underway to evaluate its potential to achieve local elimination of codling moth in Central Hawkes Bay apple orchards

Pest management in New Zealand's pipfruit Integrated Fruit Production (IFP) programme relies on selective pesticides, biological control and pheromone mating disruption. The current situation is potentially precarious and one concern, the impact of less selective pesticides, was tested. Apple trees received synthetic pyrethroid (deltamethrin) sprays during the first half of two growing seasons. Beneficial and pest species were monitored monthly from November to April. Treated trees had fewer predatory bugs (91- 100% reduction), lacewings (64-100%), earwigs (80-100%), predatory mites (67-100%), spiders (20-64%) and Hymenoptera (16-49%) than untreated trees. Ladybird numbers varied depending on the assessment method. Outbreaks of phytophagous mites and woolly apple aphid occurred on treated trees, but there were fewer apple leafcurling midge, San Jose scale and Froggatt's apple leafhopper on untreated trees. Factors that make pest management under IFP vulnerable in the future, include a loss of biological control and the consequences of new pests establishing.

New Zealand apple growers need to produce crops that satisfy conlicting export market requirements. Some markets want pest-free fruit, while others demand residue-free fruit. Pheromone mating disruption combined with the judicious use of insecticides enables crops to meet both demands. This study in 14 Hawke's Bay apple orchards showed that seasonal pheromone trap catch was reduced by 70%, from 40.1 codling moths/trap in the season before mating disruption was introduced to 11.7 moths/trap over the subsequent ive seasons. In the same period, insecticide use reduced from 5.9 applications/season in 2006- 07 to 2.3 in 2007-08 and 3.7 since 2008-09. The incidence of larvae in fruit where mating disruption operated averaged 0.01%, which was lower than in orchards using insecticides only. Damage increased from 2008-09 with greater reliance on codling moth granulosis virus over residual insecticides. Nevertheless, mating disruption with 3-4 insecticide sprays controlled codling moth to the high standard needed.

Codling moth ( Cydia pomonella) and leafrollers, principally lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana), are key pests of apples. Pheromone mating disruption has until now required separate dispensers to be deployed for each pest group. With 600-1000 dispensers per ha for each species, application costs are a signiicant factor limiting the wider adoption of multi-species mating disruption in New Zealand apple orchards. The aim was to integrate the two disruption systems into a single dispenser, and evaluate its performance against that of separate dispensers, in paired block comparisons on four apple orchards. The three measures of effectiveness , pheromone trap catch, suppression of moth mating and fruit damage at harvest, all showed no statistical differences between the two treatments. The performance of the new combination pheromone dispenser was equivalent to that when the two dispensers were deployed separately.

The sale of pheromone traps lures and mating disruption products for horticultural insect pest species has grown steadily since the late 1980s with expanding sales to New Zealand growers from Plant Food Research (PFR) and its predecessors New biosecurity incursions led to pheromone identifications for delimitation and pest management of other species Mating disruption products were developed to target leafrollers currant clearwing codling moth and oriental fruit moth In 201011 the activity involved with production of > 30 pheromone products was sold as a business unit by PFR to a New Zealand company In addition the first legislative group standard for plant protection products was drawn up to enable future development of straightchained lepidopteran sex pheromones under New Zealands Environmental Protection Authority The availability of pheromone products to assist with decision support and pest management is now subject to market forces

Mealybug infestations in New Zealand apples declined when integrated fruit production was implemented in the late 1990s. In Hawke's Bay, however, mealybugs have recently become an increasing problem. The mean incidence of mealybugs at harvest increased from 1.7% in 2008 to 2.2% in 2010. In 2009 and 2010, almost 50% of blocks had a higher incidence than the previous year. Analysis of spray diaries suggested that spray programmes up to 2009-10 were inadequate to maintain long-term suppression of mealybugs. Key factors were the number of insecticide sprays, their time of application, and the choice of product, but not spray coverage. Consequently, in spring 2010, orchard managers were encouraged to follow a 'best practice' spray programme against mealybugs, which led to markedly improved mealybug control. At harvest in 2011, the mean incidence was 0.7% and just 14% of blocks had more mealybugs than the previous year while almost 60% had fewer.

The parasitoid Aphelinus mali controls woolly apple aphid (WAA; Eriosoma lanigerum) in New Zealand apple orchards. The effects of seven pesticides on A. mali exposed to residues on filter paper were assessed in a laboratory bioassay immediately post- application. Spinosad at label rate was moderately to highly toxic, but other compounds and lower rates of spinosad had no detrimental effects on A. mali. Another bioassay incorporating field application and exposure to aged residues on leaves determined the toxicity of carbaryl, diazinon, indoxacarb and lime sulphur. Carbaryl had the greatest residual toxicity to A. mali on harvested leaves, causing 85% mortality 21 days after application, declining to 40% by 28 days. In contrast, diazinon initially caused high mortality but residues were not toxic 15 days after application, while indoxyacarb and lime sulphur were not toxic. Minimising the use of pesticides toxic to A. mali should benefit the sustainable management of WAA in apple orchards.

Grapevine leafroll-associated Virus 3 debilitates grapevines, reducing yields and juice quality, and eventually makes vineyards uneconomic. Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.) are the key insect pests of grapes in New Zealand because they are the principal vectors of this virus. Until recently, all insecticides registered for their control depended on direct contact, but mealybugs live in hard-to-treat parts of vines. This research tested the efficacy of two neonicotinoid insecticides, imidacloprid and SCAL 5085, that have translaminar and systemic activity. Two field trials were conducted on commercial vineyards with the insecticides applied as soil drenches. In the first trial, imidacloprid applied at 0.525 g ai/vine reduced mealybug abundance by >99% compared with untreated vines, and autumn and spring applications were equally effective. Half this rate was less effective, although drenching in autumn was better than in spring. In the second trial, treatments were applied in winter, and SCAL 5085 at 0.263 g ai/vine provided equivalent control to imidacloprid at 0.525 g ai/vine.

Leafrollers are important pests of apples and infested fruit can result in rejection of export consignments. Leafroller mating disruption using a pheromone blend with activity against three species was examined in 12 Hawke's Bay orchards over two seasons (2009- 10 and 2010-11). Pheromone dispensers (600/ha) and a single insecticide were applied to trees in early November, and subsequent insecticide use was based on leafroller pheromone trapping and thresholds. The pheromone blend substantially suppressed mating of virgin female lightbrown apple moth in treated orchards and reduced male catch in pheromone traps by up to 98% compared with the season prior to implementation. Insecticide use for leafroller control decreased accordingly, from 2.1-2.7 insecticides per block in 2008/09 to 1.0-1.8 in 2010/11. Leafroller control using mating disruption was acceptable, fruit damage varied from 0.3% to 0.16% and no leafroller larvae were found on fruit in both field assessments and phytosanitary inspections of packed cartons.

New Zealand’s major fruit industries are dependent upon producing high-quality crops for export with a very low incidence of pest damage. Light brown apple moth was an economically important pest within the fruit sector in the 1960s through the 1980s, and it developed resistance to broad-spectrum insecticides. The increase in its pest status focused research on biological control, and existing native natural enemies were augmented with new introductions from Australia in the late 1960s. By the early 1990s, this effort resulted in substantially reduced leafroller populations and fruit damage. The implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programs in the New Zealand fruit sector in the mid- to late 1990s practically eliminated the use of broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticides, further enhancing natural control. Today light brown apple moth is successfully managed in IPM and organic programs through a combination of biological control and threshold-based applications of selective insecticides.

Bronze beetle (Eucolaspsis sp Coleoptera Chrysomelidae) threatens the economic viability of New Zealands organic pipfruit industry Small plot cultivation trials were conducted during spring to target immature beetles in the soil under apple trees These treatments did not appear to be as effective in the second year as in the previous year although two cultivations significantly reduced beetle emergence at all orchards compared with the control In largescale cultivation trials two cultivations reduced damage to apples by 4661 Sampling immature development stages of the beetles in the soil indicated that cultivation should commence during mid October to target pupae in the top 70 mm of the soil The application of cultivation treatments for controlling bronze beetle on commercial orchards is discussed

The New Zealand horticultural sector has made substantial progress in pesticide risk reduction by implementing sustainability programmes. Apple and winegrape pesticide use was analysed to measure changes in human and aquatic eco-toxicity arising from these initiatives using the Hazardous Substances and New Organism 1996 Act (HSNO) classification system. In 1995 insecticide use on apples and winegrapes was 11.6 and 0.31 kg ai/ha respectively, while fungicide loadings were similar, about 30 kg ai/ha. Since then insecticide loading on apples has decreased by 80% with much lower potential human toxicity. Growers following Integrated Fruit Production guidelines reduced fungicide loadings by 45% but expansion of organic apple production increased the sector’s total fungicide use. The wine sector has reduced their total agrichemical loading of insecticides by 72% and fungicides by 62%, mostly through lower use of sulphur fungicides. Both sectors have reduced their use of agrichemicals that are potentially toxic to aquatic ecosystems.

Mealybugs (Hemiptera Pseudococcidae) are the most important insect pests in New Zealand vineyards because they vector grapevine leafroll virus which seriously debilitates vines and reduces wine quality A field trial was conducted on a commercial vineyard using the insecticides prothiofos (Tokuthion) and buprofezin (Applaudtrade;) Factors tested were the timing and number of applications water rate (250 500 or 1000 litres/ha) and inclusion of an alkylsilicone or organosilicone spreadertype adjuvant Prothiofos was applied in late September (late dormant) while buprofezin was sprayed at late dormant mid October and late November (preflowering) The best treatments for reducing mealybug numbers and proportion of infested leaves were prothiofos at late dormant and two later applications of buprofezin Two applications of buprofezin were more effective than one more than halving the number of mealybugs A water rate of 500 litres/ha was equally as effective as 1000 litres/ha None of the three adjuvants improved the efficacy of prothiofos or buprofezin

Bronze beetle (Eucolaspsis sp Coleoptera Chrysomelidae) threatens the viability of New Zealands organic pipfruit industry Small plot cultivation trials were conducted during spring to target immature beetles in the soil in a 25 m strip under apple trees A single cultivation treatment in October prevented 56 to 81 of the beetle population from emerging When plots were tilled every second week from October to December 79 to 95 failed to emerge The pattern and timing of bronze beetle emergence during 2006 was consistent between the four trial orchards and with the 2005 season A survey of 20 orchards during November 2006 was unable to link beetle damage levels with management practices and the physical environment New strategies to manage bronze beetle larvae are discussed

Leafroller larvae especially Epiphyas postvittana damage grape bunches and more importantly promote spread of the disease botrytis (Botrytis cinerea) Three methods of monitoring leafrollers were compared on 10 Hawkes Bay vineyard blocks The methods were timed searches of leaves for larvae inspection of bunches for larvae and pheromone trapping of adult males Seasonal changes in leafroller abundance were similar on all vineyards Usually few larvae were found until February but infestations increased greatly between then and March In other respects leafroller infestations were variable between and sometimes within blocks None of the monitoring methods was completely successful The most useful method was bunch inspection primarily because of the close correlation between bunch infestations in January and at harvest However this method is relatively laborious and did not give enough warning to enable use of some insecticides Leafroller infestations on leaves in all months and pheromone trap data were poor predictors of harvest bunch damage

Grapevine leafroll disease in New Zealand is predominantly caused by the ampelovirus GLRaV3 which is vectored between vines by up to three species of mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp) However global understanding of the transmission and spread of GLRaV3 remains limited and does not definitively show how to successfully manage the disease in New Zealand The disease is a manifestation of a complex relationship between the virus vine and vectors each component of which is interdependent on the other two The review suggests that a full understanding of the disease will require research and operational input from plant virologists entomologists vine physiologists pest controllers vineyard managers grapevine breeders/improvers and winemakers Such a wide range of expertise should ensure that the factors behind the spread of the disease over time (its epidemiology) are accurately determined and that effective management solutions are delivered over the course of decades

A laboratory bioassay was used to evaluate the effect of residues from 10 orchard pesticides on mortality of Dolichogenidea tasmanica a parasitoid of leafrollers Adult parasitoids were caged in Petri dishes that had been sprayed with the field rate of the pesticides Mortality was assessed over 7 days and classified using the laboratory criteria defined by the International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants Residues of buprofezin emamectin benzoate lufenuron tebufenozide and thiacloprid were harmless (lt;30 mortality) to D tasmanica adults in the 7 days after treatment Indoxacarb and lime sulphur residues were moderately harmful (8099 mortality) while carbaryl diazinon and spinosad residues were harmful (>99 mortality) The implications for leafroller control in pipfruit production programmes are discussed

Leafrollers (Tortricidae) were collected from apple foliage and understorey vegetation in six commercial organic apple orchards in Hawke’s Bay over one season. Assessments were made of plant species present in the understorey at the time of collection. All leafroller larvae were reared to adults on artificial diet to identify leafroller species and parasitoids. Nearly half (47%) of all leafrollers collected in these orchards were located in the understorey, highlighting the importance of understorey and its management for the control of leafroller. Dock, clover and dandeliontype plants contributed 25% to the overall understorey, yet hosted 75% of the leafrollers collected from the understorey. Dolichogenidea sp. was the most abundant parasitoid (79%) attacking leafrollers found amongst the apple foliage, whereas Glyptapanteles demeter was dominant in the understorey (61%). Generally the number of leafrollers in an orchard was proportional to the abundance of broadleaf weeds and inversely proportional to parasitism.

The infestation of apple (Malus domestica) trees by Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) larvae was studied over 3 years. Fresh damage to leaves increased progressively during the season, although in Nelson it declined in April. Fruit damage was first detected in December and increased throughout the season. The incidence of fruit damage was most strongly correlated with the surface area of fruit. Single leaves were the preferred feeding site for larvae on terminal shoots, although when whole branches were examined, most shelters occurred between two leaves. Feeding sites on fruit predominantly involved contact with a leaf or another apple. A field experiment examined the influence of physical contact and fruit maturation on leafroller damage. E. postvittana larvae were offered a choice of feeding sites involving leaves and three types of “apple” namely untreated apples, apples treated with chlorethephon to promote ripening, and plastic balls. There was 16% more damage on treated compared with untreated...

Pheromone traps were operated in five regions to determine the impact of trap colour on catch of target and nontarget insects Red or green coloured pheromone sticky traps caught fewer native and introduced bees compared to the standard white traps and yellow or blue traps Honey bees (Apis mellifera) were caught mainly in white followed by blue traps while bumble bees (Bombus spp) were most attracted to blue traps with most of the remainder caught in white traps Native bee (Lasioglossum and Hylaeus spp) catches were greatest in white traps followed by yellow traps with a few in green traps There was no significant difference in catch of the target species Cydia pomonella or Epiphyas postvittana with trap colour Replacement of the white traps with green or red traps is recommended to reduce nontarget impacts on bees

The comparative abundance of orchard pest leafroller larvae was determined on eight host plants in the vicinity of pipfruit orchards. The greatest numbers occurred in Canterbury, followed by Nelson, Hawke's Bay, and Central Otago. In Hawke's Bay, leafroller larvae were Ctenopseustis obliquana (41%), Planotortrix octo (15%), Epiphyas postvittana (16%), and Cnephasia jactatana (9%), and were most abundant on poplar, willow, and alder. In Nelson, leafrollers were E. postvittana (25%), Planotortrix excessana (23%), C. obliquana (23%), and C. herana (22%), found on willow, alder, clover, poplar, gorse, broom, dock, and plantain. In Canterbury, larvae were C. herana (51%), E. postvittana (34%), and P. octo (15%), mainly on broom, gorse, alder, poplar, dock, and clover. Leafrollers were very rare on host plants sampled in Central Otago, despite their pest status in horticulture. A total of 1460 larvae were reared to adults from the four regions, with 31% parasitism, of which two thirds were Dolichogenid...

In orchards using New Zealand Integrated Fruit Production for pipfruit (NZIFP-P), the decision to treat for leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) results from sampling of 200 fruit clusters or 200 shoots. This required a large time commitment by the grower, was subject to misidentification and was a poor predictor of damage at harvest. In 1996-97, cumulative trap catch of Epiphyas postvittana (LBAM) within NZIFP-P research plots was found to be highly correlated with damage at harvest and a cumulative catch of 30 moths after 15 December was established as a tentative threshold. Insecticides were to be applied at least 21 days apart during periods of high trap catches. In 1997-98, this threshold was successfully used by 300 growers and using their trap data, the effect of increasing the threshold to 50 was examined. The 50 moth threshold is not appropriate in Otago, but in northern regions shows some potential and requires further evaluation.

Apple orchardists in Twyford, Hawke’s Bay, have reported increased fruit damage by leafrollers for several years. Of the three pest species present in this area, Planotortrix octo (greenheaded leafroller), is the main species found on fruit. First instar P. octo larvae were screened for resistance by a direct spray test using a Potter tower. Dosage-mortality responses for the offspring of wild-wild pairs from three orchards showed a 7-32 fold resistance to azinphos-methyl compared with larvae from a susceptible laboratory colony. P. octo larvae from one of the above and 16 further orchards were sprayed with a single diagnostic dosage (LD 99 for the susceptible strain). Resistance was found at 17 of 19 sites covering approximately 1000 ha. A resistance management strategy, using pheromone mating disruption, is being implemented.

Woolly apple aphid Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) populations were monitored at the Appleby Research Orchard near Nelson (1994/ 1996) in two apple cultivars as part of an experimental Integrated Fruit Production programme which included the insect growth regulator insecticide tebufenozide. The aphid population increased dramatically during the first season in one cultivar (‘Sturmer Pippin’) from mid February and reached 90% shoot infestation by late summer. Parasitism of the aphid by the specific endoparasitoid, Aphelinus mali (Haldeman), was first recorded in late March 1995 and peaked at 13% by the end of April 1995 when monitoring ceased. In the second season the parasitoid was present from early summer and >80% parasitism was recorded by late April 1996. Aphid control was achieved without the need for specific aphicide sprays. The results indicate the potential for biological control of woolly apple aphid by A. mali within a selective insecticide

Pheromone traps together with leaf and fruit samples were used to measure the seasonal occurrence and relative pest status of three species of leafrollers (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in two berryfruit gardens in Hawkes Bay, New Zealand. The pheromone trap data detected slight differences in the seasonal phenology of male flights between the two properties, but reflected the relative pest status of larvae infesting leaves and fruit at only one property. Numbers of larvae of the different species found in leaves, on the other hand, were good predictors of pest status at harvest. Three species of larval parasitoids (all Hymenoptera) were reared, and their seasonal occurrence noted, but the data were inadequate to allow life‐table compilation or measurement of population regulation of their hosts.

Mated pairs of Epiphyas postvittana and Planotortrix octo were marked and released at a point source in a young, 40 ha orchard. Port wine bait traps and pheromone traps along eight radiating transects were checked daily. In 1988, recapture of E. postvittana was 0.24% of females in bait traps, 0.23% of males in bait traps, with 3.4% of males in pheromone traps. In 1990, recapture of both male and female E. postvittana was more successful (12.2% of females in bait traps, 4.4% of males in bait traps, and 12.4% of males in pheromone traps). No marked males and only one marked female P. octo were recaptured in bait traps, although 5.1% of males were recaptured in pheromone traps. The maximum dispersal distance recorded for E. postvittana males was 600 m, but 80% of released males were recaptured within 100 m. For female E. postvittana, the maximum distance recorded was 275 m, with 99% dispersing 100 m or less. Male P. octo exhibited similar dispersal capability to male E. postvittana, with a maximum o...

Agrichemical users face increasing pressures to adhere to and document safe and responsible use practices Many requirements are set by the Resource Management (RMA) and Hazardous Substances and New Organisms (HSNO) legislation Additional use and user requirements are dictated by market expectations for residues and adherence to different GAP programmes Widespread adoption of industry relevant user training programmes is arguably the most effective way to achieve safe and effective agrichemical use in New Zealand RMA requirements under all Regional Plans in the country require some level of agrichemical user training with HSNO legislation requiring separate approved handler (AH) certification for at least one person on most properties With over 50000 farms and horticultural properties in NZ the estimated agrichemical user trainee population is well over 100000 people GROWSAFE and AH certificate numbers from 200409 after the 2004 enactment of the HSNO legislation for agrichemicals averaged 9900 per annum These certificates are required to be renewed every 5 years but average trainee numbers from 200812 dropped to only 4950 per annum Training requirements and outcome expectations are reviewed in light of these declining trainee numbers and a new industryfocussed training initiative is described

Spray Plan Manager (SPM) is a decision support tool that helps users manage and document agrichemical use plans for compliance and for environmental and user risk reduction Refined and relaunched in 2013 at wwwsprayplanconz SPM has a base user group of 1700 registered plans across 76 crop types SPM takes agrichemical users through a stepwise property spray plan development SPM uses online GIS mapping to assist in agrichemical risk management around identified sensitive areas SPM uses agrichemical HSNO hazard classifications to describe personal protective equipment requirements for agrichemical mixing and application operations For ongoing management of boundary and sensitive areas spray drift risks can be estimated using forecast wind speed wind direction humidity and temperature SPM ranks drift conditions on a scale from 1 (suitable) to 4 (unsuitable) and displays the usersupplied forecast directional risks on the property map This has introduced a near realtime management component into annual spray plan operations Annually produced property spray plans are an agrichemical use requirement under most regional plans The new SPM was designed to assist users in this compliance task while also improving user education and outcomes around the safe effective and responsible use of agrichemicals

A dispenser incorporating a pheromone blend to disrupt three species of New Zealand leafrollers was developed for their control in Otago summerfruit orchards. This control system was evaluated for suppression of leafroller activity in Hawke’s Bay apple and summerfruit orchards over 2 years. In 2007-8, dispensers were applied at 600-1000/ha in two large organic apple orchards and activity of all three species in pheromone traps was recorded. Dispensers achieved only 73.8% and 61% shut-down of lightbrown apple moth pheromone traps in Orchards A and B respectively. Dispensers were modified to increase disruption of this species and were evaluated in similar trials on the same orchards in 2008-9, and achieved 98.4% and 90.9% trap shut-down respectively. The same dispenser was also evaluated on four summerfruit orchards, where it was applied to 1 ha plots in January 2009 at 1000 dispensers/ha. Pheromone trap catches of lightbrown apple moth were reduced by 83.3–100% over the following 3 months. Further assessment of this multiple species mating disruption system is required to determine its value in managing the fruit damage and larval infestation risks to meet export market tolerances.

An integrated control programme against Panonychus ulmi (Koch) is described which uses a phytoseiid predator, Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten, known to be common in commercial orchards and to be highly resistant to azinphos-methyl. The programme was tested in commercial export orchards in Nelson in the 1975–76 and 1976–77 seasons. By regular monitoring of the levels and ratios of T. pyri and P. ulmi the application of miticides was confined to occasions when specified population thresholds were exceeded. At these times a selective miticide, cyhexatin, was applied to improve predator: prey ratios. No other changes were made to normal commercial spray practices for pest and disease control in the monitored orchards. The integrated mite control programme saved an average of N.Z.$75–80/ha in spray materials each season. No fruits were rejected from export grade because of contamination with mite eggs. Procedures for the wider implementation of integrated mite control in commercial orchards are described a...

Systems approaches to managing risks on a pathway are increasingly seen as alternatives to singlepoint risk management treatments applied at the border One key challenge of systems approaches is the difficulty in measuring risk management effectiveness across an entire pathway comprising many complex processes The World Trade Organisation (WTO) agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPS) states that measures must be applied only to the extent required to achieve an appropriate degree of sanitary/phytosanitary protection (not unnecessarily traderestrictive) and must use sciencebased risk assessment The framework for import risk analysis within the scope of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) is outlined in the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs) Although a systems approach and independent risk reduction system processes are described in various ISPMs the methodology for determining risk across an entire pathway with complex processes is not This contribution reviews methodologies with potential for such use

By 2003, organic apple [Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill var. domestica (Borkh.) Mansf.] production had increased to 5626 ha in the United States and to 2964 ha in New Zealand by 2002. Common problems facing organic apple growers in the humid regions of New Zealand and the United States include effective management strategies for apple scab [Venturia inaequalis (Cooke)] and insect pests. Experiments conducted in Iowa in 2003–2004 demonstrated the effectiveness of a kaolin clay- and spinosad-based insecticide program in maintaining codling moth [Cydia pomonella (L.)] damage levels to less than 5% in the scab-resistant cultivars Enterprise, Liberty, Redfree, and Gold Rush. Similar pest management systems have been developed in New Zealand to comply with export standards and quarantines. The use of codling moth granulosis virus and a spinosad-based insecticide have led to reduced pest pressure and to an increase in organic exports with a 41% premium price over conventional apples. However, an association between spinosad use and woolly apple aphid [Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann)] population increase was observed in organic orchard surveys in 2006. An alternative to spinosad applications, insect disinfestation through controlled atmosphere (CA) treatment, was investigated to control quarantined pests and to extend the storage potential of scab-resistant cultivars. A CA treatment of 9 weeks of 2% O2 and 2% CO2 at 0.5 °C was determined to maintain firmness ratings to export standards in CA-stored, scab-resistant ‘Pinkie’ apples and to decrease internal ethylene concentration by 84% compared with apples stored in air. In addition, new scab-resistant cultivars with ‘Pinkie’ background under development in New Zealand show promise for organic production in humid regions. Few fruit quality differences were determined between ‘Pinkie’ fruits from integrated fruit production and organic production systems, although premium prices exist only for certified organic apples.

The global market for total organic product sales was $20 billion in 2005, continuing an annual growth rate of 20% to 35%. In the United States, there were 937,000 ha of certified organic land in 2003 with 5626 ha of organic apples [Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill var. domestica (Borkh.) Mansf.]. Increases in organic fruit production have been associated with improved pest management methods, the use of disease-resistant cultivars, and organic-focused marketing schemes. Often constrained by lower apple yields and smaller fruit size compared with conventional counterparts, key challenges for organic growers include regulation of nutrient cycling processes to maintain crop yields while minimizing the need for external inputs. In local or regional organic markets, disease-resistant apple cultivars, such as ‘Enterprise’, ‘Liberty’, ‘Redfree’, and ‘Gold Rush’, have gained increased acceptance, whereas exporting countries have continued their use of cultivars susceptible to scab [Venturia inaequalis (Cooke)]. Integrated insect pest management approaches, including the use of kaolin clay, codling moth granulosis virus, and spinosad-based insecticides, have been successfully developed to comply with export standards and quarantines, and to meet market demand. Key pests, such as codling moth [Cydia pomonella (L.)], have been managed at damage levels less than 5% using these approaches. Future pest management strategies in organic apple production will focus on development of scab-resistant cultivars with enhanced storage capability and reduction in inputs associated with negative environmental and health effects.