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Trait and functional trait approaches have revolutionized ecology improving our understanding of community assembly, species coexistence, and biodiversity loss. Focusing on traits promotes comparability across spatial and organizational scales, but terms must be used consistently. While several papers have offered definitions, it remains unclear how ecologists operationalize "trait" and "functional trait" terms. Here, we evaluate how researchers and the published literatures use these terms and explore differences among subdisciplines and study systems (taxa and biome). By conducting both a survey and a literature review, we test the hypothesis that ecologists' working definition of "trait" is adapted or altered when confronting the realities of collecting, analyzing and presenting data. From 486 survey responses and 712 reviewed papers, we identified inconsistencies in the understanding and use of terminology among researchers, but also limited inclusion of definitions within the published literature. Discrepancies were not explained by subdiscipline, system of study, or respondent characteristics, suggesting there could be an inconsistent understanding even among those working in related topics. Consistencies among survey responses included the use of morphological, phonological, and physiological traits. Previous studies have called for unification of terminology; yet, our study shows that proposed definitions are not consistently used or accepted. Sources of disagreement include trait heritability, defining and interpreting function, and dealing with organisms in which individuals are not clearly recognizable. We discuss and offer guidelines for overcoming these disagreements. The diversity of life on Earth means traits can represent different features that can be measured and reported in different ways, and thus, narrow definitions that work for one system will fail in others. We recommend ecologists embrace the breadth of biodiversity using a simplified definition of "trait" more consistent with its common use. Trait-based approaches will be most powerful if we accept that traits are at least as diverse as trait ecologists.

This commentary focuses on analyzing the potential of citizen science to address legitimacy issues in the knowledge base used to guide transformative governance in the context of the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (henceforth SDGs). The commentary develops two interrelated arguments for better understanding the limits of what we term “traditional” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment (EMA) as well as the potential of citizen science (CS) for strengthening the legitimacy of EMA in the local implementation of SDGs. We start by arguing that there is an urgent need for a profound renewal of traditional EMA to better implement the SDGs. Then, we present CS as a democratic innovation that provides a path to EMA renewal that incorporates, develops, and extends the role of CS in data production and use by EMA. The commentary substantiates such arguments based on current approaches to CS and traditional EMA. From this starting point, we theorize the potential of CS as a democratic innovation that can repurpose EMA as a tool for the implementation of the SDGs. With a focus on the implementation of SDG15 (Life on Land) in local contexts, the commentary presents CS as a democratic innovation for legitimate transformative governance that can affect socio-ecological transitions. We see this approach as especially appropriate to analyze the implementation of SDGs in rural settings where a specific resource nexus can create conflict-laden contexts with much potential for a renewed EMA to support transformative governance towards Agenda 2030. Evidence-based navigation of SDG synergies and conflicts: Renewing Environmental Monitoring and Assessment for a more effective role in Agenda 2030

Setting aside small remnant patches of high biodiversity forest within managed forest landscapes is often used as conservation measure to provide a refuge and future source population of forest biodiversity, including wood-inhabiting fungal communities. Yet little is known about the long-term fungal community assembly, how these small, isolated patches change through time and how forest management in the surrounding landscape impacts traits and community functionality housed within. We applied a joint species distribution model to compare how fungal traits and communities changed over two survey periods undertaken similar to 20 years apart in boreal forest set-aside and natural patches. Natural patches in naturally fragmented landscapes were considered reference forests for small, remnant, near-natural forest patches in intensively managed forest landscapes. We found the majority of fungal traits converged over time between set-aside and natural patches, without changes in overall species richness. Red-listed species occurrence was initially lower in set-aside patches, but reached a comparable level of natural patches over time as a result of opposing changes in both patch types. Functional trait changes were larger in set-aside patches, but convergence was also related to opposing changes in natural patches. This is the first study to directly measure and test wood fungal community trait-environment relationships over time in small, high-conservation value forest patches. The long-term functional trait and red-listed species values of set-asides, coupled with their capacity for old-growth recovery, make them valuable focal areas for conservation.

As the use of functional trait approaches is growing in fungal ecology, there is a corresponding need to understand trait variation. Much of trait theory and statistical techniques are built on the assumption that interspecific variation is larger than intraspecific variation. This allows the use of mean trait values for species, which the vast majority of trait studies adopt. We examined the size of intra- vs. inter-specific variation in two wood fungal fruit body traits: size and density. Both coefficients of variation (CV) and Trait Probability Density analyses were used to quantify trait variation. We found that intraspecific variation in fruit body density was more than twice as variable as interspecific variation, and fruit bodysize was hugely variable (CVs averaged 190%), although interspecific variation was larger. Further, there was a very high degree of overlap in the trait space of species, indicating that there may be little niche partitioning at the species level. These findings show that intraspecific variation is highly important and should be accounted for when using trait approaches to understand fungal ecology. More data on variation of other fungal traits is also desperately needed to ascertain whether the high level of variation found here is typical for fungi. While the need to measure individuals does reduce the ability to generalise at the species level, it does not negate the usefulness of fungal trait measurements. There are two reasons for this: first, the ecology of most fungal species remains poorly known and trait measurements address this gap; and secondly, if trait overlap between species more generally is as much as we found here, then individual measurements may be more helpful than species identity for untangling fungal community dynamics.

Low-productivity forests are often the last remaining pristine forests in managed forest landscapes and typically overrepresented among protected forests. However, the provisioning of individual and multiple ecosystem services (ES-multifunctionality) by these forests remains poorly assessed, making it difficult to evaluate their importance in forest conservation and management.Here, using nationwide data on ES from over 2,000 forest plots, we test whether levels of ES-multifunctionality and individual ES differ between low-productivity forested mires and rocky outcrops in relation to the levels of productive forests, and as a function of forest age, tree species richness and climate. We defined ES-multifunctionality using different threshold values of the maximum levels (low, medium and high) and weighted these according to land-use objectives (equal weight of all services, greater weight to cultural and supporting ES or greater weight to production).We show that the ES-multifunctionality of forested mires is consistently lower than those of productive forests. However, the ES-multifunctionality increased with forest age in forested mires but not in productive forests. The ES-multifunctionality of forested rocky outcrops, on the other hand, was higher or equivalent to that of productive forests under equal weight and supporting land-use objectives, respectively. Our findings highlight that forested rocky outcrops can supply multiple ES, especially older forested stands with mixtures of coniferous and deciduous trees. Generally, we found no evidence for strong trade-offs between the ES studied and our results highlight the importance of forest age for increasing the ES-multifunctionality of low-productivity forests.Synthesis and applications. Low-productivity forests should not be exempt of forestry or protected purely based on low productivity or low land-use conflict if the goal is to conserve multiple ecosystem services (ES). Inclusion grounds for protecting low-productivity forests should instead carefully consider the site type (dry vs. wet), forest age and tree species richness. To maintain higher ES-multifunctionality in low-productivity forests, older or deciduous trees should also not be harvested. This will require changes in current conservation or management policies of low-productivity forests of some countries.

Functional traits are widely recognized as a useful framework for testing mechanisms underlying species community assemblage patterns and ecosystem processes. Functional trait studies in the plant and animal literature have burgeoned in the past 20 years, highlighting a need for standardized ways to measure ecologically meaningful traits across taxa and ecosystems. However, standardized measurements of functional traits are lacking for many organisms and ecosystems, including fungi. Basidiomycete wood fungi occur in all forest ecosystems world‐wide, where they are decomposers and also provide food or habitat for other species, or act as tree pathogens. Despite their major role in the functioning of forest ecosystems, the understanding and application of functional traits in studies of communities of wood fungi lags behind other disciplines. As the research field of fungal functional ecology is growing, there is a need for standardized ways to measure fungal traits within and across taxa and spatial scales. This handbook reviews pre‐existing fungal trait measurements, proposes new core fungal traits, discusses trait ecology in fungi and highlights areas for future work on basidiomycete wood fungi. We propose standard and potential future methodologies for collecting traits to be used across studies, ensuring replicability and fostering between‐study comparison. Combining concepts from fungal ecology and functional trait ecology, methodologies covered here can be related to fungal performance within a community and environmental setting. This manuscript is titled “a start with” as we only cover a subset of the fungal community here, with the aim of encouraging and facilitating the writing of handbooks for other members of the macrofungal community, for example, mycorrhizal fungi. © 2018 The Authors. Functional Ecology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Ecological Society. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

To replace fossil fuel and thereby mitigate climate change, harvesting of wood such as stumps for bioenergy will likely increase. Coarse deadwood is an important resource for biodiversity and stumps comprise the main part of the coarse deadwood in managed forests. We provide the first integrated analysis of the long-term climate and biodiversity impacts of a whole landscape. We simultaneously project climate and biodiversity impacts of harvesting stumps to substitute for fossil coal, assuming scenarios with different proportions of the landscape with stump harvest (10, 50, 80%) the coming 50years. A life cycle approach was used to calculate future global temperature changes and future metapopulation changes in six epixylic lichens. Metapopulation dynamics were projected using colonization and extinction models based on times series data. Harvesting stumps from 50% of the clear-cut forest land benefits climate with a net global temperature reduction >0.5.10(-9)Kha(-1) after 50years if assuming substitution of fossil coal. For all scenarios, using stump bioenergy leads to immediate (within 1year) reductions in temperature of >= 50% compared to using fossil coal, increasing to 70% reduction after 50 years. However, large-scale stump harvest inflicted substantial metapopulation declines for five of six lichens. High stump harvest levels (>= 50%) put common lichens at risk of becoming red-listed following the IUCN criteria. The net temperature reduction (cooling effect) from substituting fossil coal with stumps harvested for bioenergy increased over time, while lichen metapopulations stabilized at lower equilibria after two to three decades. This indicates that trade-offs between climate and metapopulations of commons species are transient, where climate benefits become more prevalent in the long term. As both objectives are important for meeting (inter-)national climate and biodiversity targets, integrated analyses such as this should be encouraged and urged to guide policymaking about large-scale implementation of stump harvest.

The extensive spatial and temporal coverage of many citizen science datasets (CSD) makes them appealing for use in species distribution modeling and forecasting. However, a frequent limitation is the inability to validate results. Here, we aim to assess the reliability of CSD for forecasting species occurrence in response to national forest management projections (representing 160,366 km2) by comparison against forecasts from a model based on systematically collected colonization–extinction data. We fitted species distribution models using citizen science observations of an old-forest indicator fungus Phellinus ferrugineofuscus. We applied five modeling approaches (generalized linear model, Poisson process model, Bayesian occupancy model, and two MaxEnt models). Models were used to forecast changes in occurrence in response to national forest management for 2020-2110. Forecasts of species occurrence from models based on CSD were congruent with forecasts made using the colonization–extinction model based on systematically collected data, although different modeling methods indicated different levels of change. All models projected increased occurrence in set-aside forest from 2020 to 2110: the projected increase varied between 125% and 195% among models based on CSD, in comparison with an increase of 129% according to the colonization–extinction model. All but one model based on CSD projected a decline in production forest, which varied between 11% and 49%, compared to a decline of 41% using the colonization–extinction model. All models thus highlighted the importance of protected old forest for P. ferrugineofuscus persistence. We conclude that models based on CSD can reproduce forecasts from models based on systematically collected colonization–extinction data and so lead to the same forest management conclusions. Our results show that the use of a suite of models allows CSD to be reliably applied to land management and conservation decision making, demonstrating that widely available CSD can be a valuable forecasting resource. deadwood-dependent fungi, forestry, global biodiversity information facility, habitat change, land use change, opportunistic data, volunteer recording

With an increasing demand for forest-based products, there is a growing interest in introducing fast-growing non-native tree species in forest management. Such introductions often have unknown consequences for native forest biodiversity. In this study, we examine epiphytic lichen species richness and species composition on the trunks of non-native Pinus contorta and compare these to the native Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies in managed boreal forests in northern Sweden across a chronosequence of age classes. Overall, we recorded a total of 66,209 lichen occurrences belonging to 57 species in the 96 studied forest stands. We found no difference in species richness of lichens between stands of P. contorta and P. sylvestris, but stands of P. abies had higher total species richness. However, species richness of lichens in stands of P. abies decreased with increasing stand age, while no such age effect was detected for P. contorta and P. sylvestris. Lichen species composition progressively diverged with increasing stand age, and in 30-year-old stands all three tree species showed species-specific assemblages. Epiphytic lichen assemblages in stands of 30-year-old P. contorta were influenced by greater basal area, canopy closure, and average diameter at breast height, P. abies stands by higher branch density and canopy closure, and stands of P. sylvestris by greater bark crevice depth. Differences in lichen species richness and composition were mainly explained by canopy closure and habitat availability, and the greater canopy closure in mature P. abies stands promoted the colonization and growth of calicioid lichen species. Our results indicate that the non-native P. contorta have similar species richness as the native P. sylvestris. The main difference in lichen species richness and composition is between P. abies and Pinus spp. in managed forests of boreal Sweden.

Mellan åren 2009-2011 genomfördes de första återinventeringarna av de 19 nyckelbiotoper, 17 naturreservat och fyra äldre produktionsskogar i Dalarna och Gävleborgs län som inventerades tio år tidigare 1998-2002 inom övervakningsprogrammet " Resultaten visade att mängden substrat, antalet förekomster av indikatorarter och enskilda arter varierar mer än vad som kan förväntas av slumpen mellan olika grupper av inventeringsobjekt. Reservaten var generellt mer strukturellt mångfaldiga och artrika än produktionsbestånden, med mer lövträd, död ved av olika slag och fynd av indikatorarter per hektar. Nyckelbiotoper intog en mellanposition och hade lägre volym av död ved per hektar än naturreservaten. Medelfrekvensen indikatorarter och vanliga vedsvampar var i genomsnitt högre per hektar i naturreservat jämfört med nyckelbiotoper. Lägre medelfrekvenser av vanliga vedsvampar i nyckelbiotoperna kunde till stor del förklaras av en högre frekvens av fnöskticka Ingen förändring kunde statistiskt säkerställas för någon av de studerade skogliga variablerna, artgrupperna elExtensiv övervakning av biotopers innehåll med inriktning mot biologisk mångfald" (Extensivmetoden). De två länen beslöt då att utvärdera metodens effektivitet för att följa upp förändringar för skogliga variabler och indikatorarter efter tio år. I den här rapporten redovisas tillståndet vid återinventeringarna 2009- 2011 samt metodens effektivitet för övervakning och uppföljning av biologisk mångfald i dessa naturreservat, nyckelbiotoper och produktionsbestånd. Den ursprungliga tanken med Extensivmetoden är att inventeringarna ska upprepas vart tionde år för en viss grupp av objekt. Syftet här har varit att svara på (1) vilka förändringar som har skett för enskilda objekt samt en viss grupp av objekt för olika skogliga variabler, indikatorarter och vanliga vedsvampar, (2) hur små/stora genomsnittliga förändringar som kan avläsas med statistisk signifikans för enskilda objekt och en grupp av objekt och (3) vilka förändringar som har skett under 10-årsperioden i de skyddade områdena respektive nyckelbiotoperna jämfört med de äldre produktionsbestånden och "vanlig" skogsmark baserat på riksskogstaxeringens data? F. fomentarius i reservaten. Ingen förändring kunde statistiskt säkerställas för någon av de studerade skogliga variablerna, artgrupperna eller eller arterna i reservaten eller nyckelbiotoperna efter 10 år. Artrikedomen av indikatorarter förblev också opåverkad över tidsperioden. Detta betyder att både skyddade naturreservat och frivilligt avsatta nyckelbiotoper hade upprätthållit en mångfald av skogliga strukturer och arter under den angivna tidsperioden. Den här rapporten är därmed den första empiriska studien som visar att artrikedomen och frekvensen av skogliga indikatorarter och vanliga vedsvampar var oförändrad över tid inom både reservat och nyckelbiotoper. Det är dock viktigt att komma ihåg att styrkeanalyserna påvisade att storleken på förändringarna som kunde påvisas med en god statistisk styrka på ca 80 % varierade för den undersökta variabeln och objektkategorin. Ett urval av 17 naturreservat var tillräckligt för att upptäcka relevanta förändringar på 25-35 % (motsvarande rödlistkategorin sårbar) av den ursprungliga genomsnittliga frekvensen av indikatorarter och vanliga vedsvampar, samt individuellt vanliga svampar som fnöskticka och klibbticka, med 80 % statistisk styrka. Den statistiska styrkan för att upptäcka liknande förändringar från ett urval av 19 nyckelbiotoper var endast 20-40 %. Extensivmetoden hade en sämre precision och styrka för att följa upp förändringar för enskilda arter, speciellt för hänglavar i cirkelprovytor och mer ovanliga arter i bältessegment. Vår bedömning är att Extensivmetoden skulle kunna få en betydande roll för miljöövervakning av värdefulla skogsbiotoper i Sverige. Upprepbarhetenär god och det finns i dagsläget väldigt få etablerade miljöövervakningsprogram i skyddsvärda skogar där upprepbarheten har utvärderats på ett liknande långsiktigt sätt. Bristen på långsiktiga övervakningsdata gör det svårt att bedöma Extensivmetodens effektivitet och betydelse i förhållande till annan miljöövervakning. En samordnad och jämförbar nationell och regional långsiktig miljöövervakning av miljökänsliga och viktiga artgrupper som lövträdslevande epifyter och vedlevande svampar saknas för olika skogsbiotoper, men är av stor betydelse för förståelsen av dessa biotopers naturvårdsnytta under framtida skötsel, förvaltning och klimat.

Mellan åren 2009-2011 genomfördes de första återinven­teringarna av de 19 nyckelbiotoper, 17 naturreservat och fyra äldre produktionsskogar i Dalarnas och Gävleborgs län som inventerades tio år tidigare 1998-2002 inom över­vakningsprogrammet ”Extensiv övervakning av biotopers innehåll med inriktning mot biologisk mångfald” (Exten­sivmetoden). I den här rappor­ten redovisas tillståndet vid återinventeringarna 2009- 2011 samt metodens effektivitet för övervakning och uppföljning av biologisk mångfald i dessa naturreservat, nyckelbiotoper och produktionsbestånd. Den ursprungliga tanken med Extensivmetoden är att inventeringarna ska upprepas vart tionde år för en viss grupp av objekt. Syftet här har varit att svara på (1) vilka förändringar som har skett för enskilda objekt samt en viss grupp av objekt för olika skogliga variabler, indikatorarter och vanliga ved­svampar, (2) hur små/stora genomsnittliga förändringar som kan avläsas med statistisk signifikans för enskilda objekt och en grupp av objekt och (3) vilka förändringar som har skett under 10-årsperioden i de skyddade områ­dena respektive nyckelbiotoperna jämfört med de äldre produktionsbestånden och ”vanlig” skogsmark baserat på riksskogstaxeringens data? Resultaten visade att mängden substrat, antalet fö­rekomster av indikatorarter och enskilda arter varierar mer än vad som kan förväntas av slumpen mellan olika grupper av inventeringsobjekt. Reservaten var generellt mer strukturellt mångfaldiga och artrika än produktionsbestånden, med mer lövträd, död ved av olika slag och fynd av indikatorarter per hektar. Nyckelbiotoper intog en mellanposition och hade lägre volym av död ved per hektar än naturreservaten. Medelfrekvensen indikatorar­ter och vanliga vedsvampar var i genomsnitt högre per hektar i naturreservat jämfört med nyckelbiotoper. Lägre medelfrekvenser av vanliga vedsvampar i nyckelbioto­perna kunde till stor del förklaras av en högre frekvens av fnöskticka F. fomentarius i reservaten. Ingen förändring kunde statistiskt säkerställas för någon av de studerade skogliga variablerna, artgrupperna eller arterna i reservaten eller nyckelbiotoperna efter 10 år. Artrikedomen av indikatorarter förblev också opåver­kad över tidsperioden. Detta betyder att både skyddade naturreservat och frivilligt avsatta nyckelbiotoper hade upprätthållit en mångfald av skogliga strukturer och arter under den angivna tidsperioden. Den här rapporten är därmed den första empiriska studien som visar att artrikedomen och frekvensen av skogliga indikatorarter och vanliga vedsvampar var oförändrad över tid inom både reservat och nyckelbiotoper. Det är dock viktigt att komma ihåg att styrkeanalyserna påvisade att storleken på förändringarna som kunde påvisas med en god statistisk styrka på ca 80 % varierade för den undersökta varia­beln och objektkategorin. Ett urval av 17 naturreservat var tillräckligt för att upptäcka relevanta förändringar på 25-35 % (motsvarande rödlistkategorin sårbar) av den ursprungliga genomsnittliga frekvensen av indikatorarter och vanliga vedsvampar, samt individuellt vanliga svam­par som fnöskticka och klibbticka, med 80 % statistisk styrka. Den statistiska styrkan för att upptäcka liknande förändringar från ett urval av 19 nyckelbiotoper var en­dast 20-40 %. Extensivmetoden hade en sämre precision och styrka för att följa upp förändringar för enskilda arter, speciellt för hänglavar i cirkelprovytor och mer ovanliga arter i bältessegment. Vår bedömning är att Extensivmetoden skulle kunna få en betydande roll för miljöövervakning av värdefulla skogsbiotoper i Sverige. Upprepbarheten är god och det finns i dagsläget väldigt få etablerade miljöövervakningsprogram i skyddsvärda skogar där upprepbarheten har utvärderats på ett liknande långsiktigt sätt. Bristen på långsiktiga övervakningsdata gör det svårt att bedöma Extensivmetodens effektivitet och betydelse i förhållande till annan miljöövervakning. En samordnad och jämförbar nationell och regional långsiktig miljöövervakning av miljökänsliga och viktiga artgrupper som lövträdslevande epifyter och vedlevande svampar saknas för olika skogs­biotoper, men är av stor betydelse för förståelsen av dessa biotopers naturvårdsnytta under framtida skötsel, förvalt­ning och klimat.

At least 10% of the world's tree species are threatened with extinction and pathogens are increasingly implicated in tree threats. Coextinction and threats to affiliates as a consequence of the loss or decline of their host trees is a poorly understood phenomenon. Ash dieback is an emerging infectious disease causing severe dieback of common ash Fraxinus excelsior throughout Europe. We utilized available empirical data on affiliate epiphytic lichen diversity (174 species and 17,800 observations) among 20 ash dieback infected host tree populations of F. excelsior on the island Gotland in the Baltic Sea, Sweden. From this, we used structured scenario projections scaled with empirical data of ash dieback disease to generate probabilistic models for estimating local and regional lichen coextinction risks. Average coextinction probabilities (A - ) were 0.38 (95% CI 60.09) for lichens occurring on F. excelsior and 0.14 (95% CI 60.03) when considering lichen persistence on all tree species. A - was strongly linked to local disease incidence levels and generally increasing with lichen host specificity to F. excelsior and decreasing population size. Coextinctions reduced affiliate community viability, with significant local reductions in species richness and shifts in lichen species composition. Affiliates were projected to become locally extirpated before their hosts, illuminating the need to also consider host tree declines. Traditionally managed open wooded meadows had the highest incidence of ash dieback disease and significantly higher proportions of affiliate species projected to go extinct, compared with unmanaged closed forests and semi-open grazed sites. Most cothreatened species were not previously red-listed, which suggest that tree epidemics cause many unforeseen threats to species. Our analysis shows that epidemic tree deaths represent an insidious, mostly overlooked, threat to sessile affiliate communities in forested environments. Current conservation and management strategies must account for secondary extinctions associated with epidemic tree death.