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1. Stable eye versus mouth preference in a live speech-processing task

Author: Viktorsson, Charlotte, Valtakari, Niilo V., Falck-Ytter, Terje, Hooge, Ignace T. C., Rudling, Maja, and Hessels, Roy S.
Published: 2023
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2. Correction to: Minimal reporting guideline for research involving eye tracking (2023 edition) (Behavior Research Methods, (2023), 10.3758/s13428-023-02187-1)

Author: Dunn, Matt J., Alexander, Robert G., Amiebenomo, Onyekachukwu M., Arblaster, Gemma, Atan, Denize, Erichsen, Jonathan T., Ettinger, Ulrich, Giardini, Mario E., Gilchrist, Iain D., Hamilton, Ruth, Hessels, Roy S., Hodgins, Scott, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Jackson, Brooke S., Lee, Helena, Macknik, Stephen L., Martinez-Conde, Susana, Mcilreavy, Lee, Muratori, Lisa M., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Otero-Millan, Jorge, Schlüssel, Michael M., Self, Jay E., Singh, Tarkeshwar, Smyrnis, Nikolaos, Sprenger, Andreas, Dunn, Matt J., Alexander, Robert G., Amiebenomo, Onyekachukwu M., Arblaster, Gemma, Atan, Denize, Erichsen, Jonathan T., Ettinger, Ulrich, Giardini, Mario E., Gilchrist, Iain D., Hamilton, Ruth, Hessels, Roy S., Hodgins, Scott, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Jackson, Brooke S., Lee, Helena, Macknik, Stephen L., Martinez-Conde, Susana, Mcilreavy, Lee, Muratori, Lisa M., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Otero-Millan, Jorge, Schlüssel, Michael M., Self, Jay E., Singh, Tarkeshwar, Smyrnis, Nikolaos, and Sprenger, Andreas
Abstract: The original online version of this article was revised. The following funding note was added: This work was supported by the New York State Empire Innovator Program, by the National Science Foundation (Award 1734887 to SM-C and SLM; Award 1523614 to SLM), and by the National Institute of Health (Award R01EY031971 to SM-C and SLM; Award R01CA258021 to SM-C and SLM). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Science Foundation nor the National Institutes of Health.
Published: 2024

3. A field test of computer-vision-based gaze estimation in psychology

Author: Valtakari, Niilo V., Hessels, Roy S., Niehorster, Diederick C., Viktorsson, Charlotte, Nyström, Pär, Falck-Ytter, Terje, Kemner, Chantal, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Valtakari, Niilo V., Hessels, Roy S., Niehorster, Diederick C., Viktorsson, Charlotte, Nyström, Pär, Falck-Ytter, Terje, Kemner, Chantal, and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Abstract: Computer-vision-based gaze estimation refers to techniques that estimate gaze direction directly from video recordings of the eyes or face without the need for an eye tracker. Although many such methods exist, their validation is often found in the technical literature (e.g., computer science conference papers). We aimed to (1) identify which computer-vision-based gaze estimation methods are usable by the average researcher in fields such as psychology or education, and (2) evaluate these methods. We searched for methods that do not require calibration and have clear documentation. Two toolkits, OpenFace and OpenGaze, were found to fulfill these criteria. First, we present an experiment where adult participants fixated on nine stimulus points on a computer screen. We filmed their face with a camera and processed the recorded videos with OpenFace and OpenGaze. We conclude that OpenGaze is accurate and precise enough to be used in screen-based experiments with stimuli separated by at least 11 degrees of gaze angle. OpenFace was not sufficiently accurate for such situations but can potentially be used in sparser environments. We then examined whether OpenFace could be used with horizontally separated stimuli in a sparse environment with infant participants. We compared dwell measures based on OpenFace estimates to the same measures based on manual coding. We conclude that OpenFace gaze estimates may potentially be used with measures such as relative total dwell time to sparse, horizontally separated areas of interest, but should not be used to draw conclusions about measures such as dwell duration.
Published: 2024

4. What is a blink? Classifying and characterizing blinks in eye openness signals

Author: Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Abstract: Blinks, the closing and opening of the eyelids, are used in a wide array of fields where human function and behavior are studied. In data from video-based eye trackers, blink rate and duration are often estimated from the pupil-size signal. However, blinks and their parameters can be estimated only indirectly from this signal, since it does not explicitly contain information about the eyelid position. We ask whether blinks detected from an eye openness signal that estimates the distance between the eyelids (EO blinks) are comparable to blinks detected with a traditional algorithm using the pupil-size signal (PS blinks) and how robust blink detection is when data quality is low. In terms of rate, there was an almost-perfect overlap between EO and PS blink (F1 score: 0.98) when the head was in the center of the eye tracker’s tracking range where data quality was high and a high overlap (F1 score 0.94) when the head was at the edge of the tracking range where data quality was worse. When there was a difference in blink rate between EO and PS blinks, it was mainly due to data loss in the pupil-size signal. Blink durations were about 60 ms longer in EO blinks compared to PS blinks. Moreover, the dynamics of EO blinks was similar to results from previous literature. We conclude that the eye openness signal together with our proposed blink detection algorithm provides an advantageous method to detect and describe blinks in greater detail.
Published: 2024

5. GlassesValidator: A data quality tool for eye tracking glasses

Author: Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Nyström, Marcus, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Nyström, Marcus, and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Abstract: According to the proposal for a minimum reporting guideline for an eye tracking study by Holmqvist et al. (2022), the accuracy (in degrees) of eye tracking data should be reported. Currently, there is no easy way to determine accuracy for wearable eye tracking recordings. To enable determining the accuracy quickly and easily, we have produced a simple validation procedure using a printable poster and accompanying Python software. We tested the poster and procedure with 61 participants using one wearable eye tracker. In addition, the software was tested with six different wearable eye trackers. We found that the validation procedure can be administered within a minute per participant and provides measures of accuracy and precision. Calculating the eye-tracking data quality measures can be done offline on a simple computer and requires no advanced computer skills.
Published: 2024

6. What is a blink? Classifying and characterizing blinks in eye openness signals

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Kenemans, Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Kenemans, Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Published: 2024

7. Correction to: Minimal reporting guideline for research involving eye tracking (2023 edition) (Behavior Research Methods, (2023), 10.3758/s13428-023-02187-1)

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Kenemans, Dunn, Matt J., Alexander, Robert G., Amiebenomo, Onyekachukwu M., Arblaster, Gemma, Atan, Denize, Erichsen, Jonathan T., Ettinger, Ulrich, Giardini, Mario E., Gilchrist, Iain D., Hamilton, Ruth, Hessels, Roy S., Hodgins, Scott, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Jackson, Brooke S., Lee, Helena, Macknik, Stephen L., Martinez-Conde, Susana, Mcilreavy, Lee, Muratori, Lisa M., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Otero-Millan, Jorge, Schlüssel, Michael M., Self, Jay E., Singh, Tarkeshwar, Smyrnis, Nikolaos, Sprenger, Andreas, Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Kenemans, Dunn, Matt J., Alexander, Robert G., Amiebenomo, Onyekachukwu M., Arblaster, Gemma, Atan, Denize, Erichsen, Jonathan T., Ettinger, Ulrich, Giardini, Mario E., Gilchrist, Iain D., Hamilton, Ruth, Hessels, Roy S., Hodgins, Scott, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Jackson, Brooke S., Lee, Helena, Macknik, Stephen L., Martinez-Conde, Susana, Mcilreavy, Lee, Muratori, Lisa M., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Otero-Millan, Jorge, Schlüssel, Michael M., Self, Jay E., Singh, Tarkeshwar, Smyrnis, Nikolaos, and Sprenger, Andreas
Published: 2024

8. Minimal reporting guideline for research involving eye tracking (2023 edition)

Author: Dunn, Matt J., Alexander, Robert G., Amiebenomo, Onyekachukwu M., Arblaster, Gemma, Atan, Denize, Erichsen, Jonathan T., Ettinger, Ulrich, Giardini, Mario E., Gilchrist, Iain D., Hamilton, Ruth, Hessels, Roy S., Hodgins, Scott, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Jackson, Brooke S., Lee, Helena, Macknik, Stephen L., Martinez-Conde, Susana, Mcilreavy, Lee, Muratori, Lisa M., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Otero-Millan, Jorge, Schlüssel, Michael M., Self, Jay E., Singh, Tarkeshwar, Smyrnis, Nikolaos, Sprenger, Andreas, Dunn, Matt J., Alexander, Robert G., Amiebenomo, Onyekachukwu M., Arblaster, Gemma, Atan, Denize, Erichsen, Jonathan T., Ettinger, Ulrich, Giardini, Mario E., Gilchrist, Iain D., Hamilton, Ruth, Hessels, Roy S., Hodgins, Scott, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Jackson, Brooke S., Lee, Helena, Macknik, Stephen L., Martinez-Conde, Susana, Mcilreavy, Lee, Muratori, Lisa M., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Otero-Millan, Jorge, Schlüssel, Michael M., Self, Jay E., Singh, Tarkeshwar, Smyrnis, Nikolaos, and Sprenger, Andreas
Abstract: A guideline is proposed that comprises the minimum items to be reported in research studies involving an eye tracker and human or non-human primate participant(s). This guideline was developed over a 3-year period using a consensus-based process via an open invitation to the international eye tracking community. This guideline will be reviewed at maximum intervals of 4 years.
Published: 2024

9. When knowing the activity is not enough to predict gaze

Author: Ghiani, Andrea, Amelink, Daan, Brenner, Eli, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Hessels, Roy S., Ghiani, Andrea, Amelink, Daan, Brenner, Eli, Hooge, Ignace T.C., and Hessels, Roy S.
Abstract: It is reasonable to assume that where people look in the world is largely determined by what they are doing. The reasoning is that the activity determines where it is useful to look at each moment in time. Assuming that it is vital to accurately judge the positions of the steps when navigating a staircase, it is surprising that people differ a lot in the extent to which they look at the steps. Apparently, some people consider the accuracy of peripheral vision, predictability of the step size, and feeling the edges of the steps with their feet to be good enough. If so, occluding part of the view of the staircase and making it more important to place one's feet gently might make it more beneficial to look directly at the steps before stepping onto them, so that people will more consistently look at many steps. We tested this idea by asking people to walk on staircases, either with or without a tray with two cups of water on it. When carrying the tray, people walked more slowly, but they shifted their gaze across steps in much the same way as they did when walking without the tray. They did not look at more steps. There was a clear positive correlation between the fraction of steps that people looked at when walking with and without the tray. Thus, the variability in the extent to which people look at the steps persists when one makes walking on the staircase more challenging.
Published: 2024

10. How Do Psychology Professors View the Relation Between Scientific Knowledge and Its Applicability and Societal Relevance?

Author: Holleman, Gijs A., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Kemner, Chantal, Hessels, Roy S., Holleman, Gijs A., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Kemner, Chantal, and Hessels, Roy S.
Abstract: How do researchers in psychology view the relation between scientific knowledge, its applicability, and its societal relevance? Most research on psychological science and its benefits to society is discussed from a bird’s eye view (a meta-scientific perspective), by identifying general trends such as psychology’s dominant focus on lab-based experiments and general descriptive theories. In recent years, several critics have argued that this focus has come at the cost of reduced practical and societal relevance. In this study, we interviewed Dutch psychology professors to gauge their views about the relation between psychological research and its relevance to society. We found that psychology professors engaged in a variety of activities to engage science with society, from work in clinical and applied settings, to consultancy, education, and science communication. However, we found that the role of theory when applying scientific knowledge to practical problems is far from straightforward. While most participants regarded theories as relevant to understanding general contexts of application, psychological theories were seldom directly related to specific applications. We compare and discuss our findings in the light of recent discussions about the lack of applicability and societal relevance of psychological science.
Published: 2024

11. Large eye–head gaze shifts measured with a wearable eye tracker and an industrial camera

Author: Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Hessels, Roy S., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, and Hessels, Roy S.
Abstract: We built a novel setup to record large gaze shifts (up to 140 ∘). The setup consists of a wearable eye tracker and a high-speed camera with fiducial marker technology to track the head. We tested our setup by replicating findings from the classic eye–head gaze shift literature. We conclude that our new inexpensive setup is good enough to investigate the dynamics of large eye–head gaze shifts. This novel setup could be used for future research on large eye–head gaze shifts, but also for research on gaze during e.g., human interaction. We further discuss reference frames and terminology in head-free eye tracking. Despite a transition from head-fixed eye tracking to head-free gaze tracking, researchers still use head-fixed eye movement terminology when discussing world-fixed gaze phenomena. We propose to use more specific terminology for world-fixed phenomena, including gaze fixation, gaze pursuit, and gaze saccade.
Published: 2024

12. Retraction Note:empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline (Retraction of Vol 55, Pg 364, 2022)

Author: Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, Hessels, Roy S., Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, and Hessels, Roy S.
Abstract: The authors have retracted this article because a number of statements are supported by two references, Holmqvist (2015) and Holmqvist (2016), which should not have been used. Saga Lee Örbom, Ignace T. C. Hooge, Diederick C. Niehorster, Robert G. Alexander, Richard Andersson, Jeroen S. Benjamins, Pieter Blignaut, Anne-Marie Brouwer, Lewis L. Chuang, Kirsten A. Dalrymple, Denis Drieghe, Matt J. Dunn, Ulrich Ettinger, Susann Fiedler, Tom Foulsham, Jos N. van der Geest, Dan Witzner Hansen, Samuel B. Hutton, Enkelejda Kasneci, Alan Kingstone, Paul C. Knox, Ellen M. Kok, Helena Lee, Joy Yeonjoo Lee, Jukka M. Leppänen, Stephen Macknik, Päivi Majaranta, Susana Martinez-Conde, Antje Nuthmann, Marcus Nyström, Jacob L. Orquin, Jorge Otero-Millan, Soon Young Park, Stanislav Popelka, Frank Proudlock, Frank Renkewitz, Austin Roorda, Michael Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Bonita Sharif, Frederick Shic, Mark Shovman, Mervyn G. Thomas, Ward Venrooij, Raimondas Zemblys and Roy S. Hessels agree with this retraction. Kenneth Holmqvist is deceased.
Published: 2024

13. A field test of computer-vision-based gaze estimation in psychology

Author: Sub Social and Affective Computing, Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Kenemans, Valtakari, Niilo V., Hessels, Roy S., Niehorster, Diederick C., Viktorsson, Charlotte, Nyström, Pär, Falck-Ytter, Terje, Kemner, Chantal, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Sub Social and Affective Computing, Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Kenemans, Valtakari, Niilo V., Hessels, Roy S., Niehorster, Diederick C., Viktorsson, Charlotte, Nyström, Pär, Falck-Ytter, Terje, Kemner, Chantal, and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Published: 2024

14. GlassesValidator: A data quality tool for eye tracking glasses

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Nyström, Marcus, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Nyström, Marcus, and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Published: 2024

15. Eye contact avoidance in crowds: A large wearable eye-tracking study

Author: Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Niehorster, Diederick C., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., Holleman, Gijs A., de Kloe, Yentl J.R., Valtakari, Niilo V., van Hal, Sebas, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, and Leerstoel Kenemans
Subjects: Linguistics and Language, Wearable, Eye contact, Social Sciences, Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, Walking, Fixation, Ocular, Eye, ALLOCATION, Language and Linguistics, Wearable Electronic Devices, 3-DIMENSIONAL EYE, Psychology, Humans, HEAD, STRATEGY, Crowd navigation, Eye-Tracking Technology, DIRECTION, Gaze, REAL, Eye tracking, Psychology, Experimental, ATTENTION, Sensory Systems, Crowding, BEHAVIOR
Abstract: Eye contact is essential for human interactions. We investigated whether humans are able to avoid eye contact while navigating crowds. At a science festival, we fitted 62 participants with a wearable eye tracker and instructed them to walk a route. Half of the participants were further instructed to avoid eye contact. We report that humans can flexibly allocate their gaze while navigating crowds and avoid eye contact primarily by orienting their head and eyes towards the floor. We discuss implications for crowd navigation and gaze behavior. In addition, we address a number of issues encountered in such field studies with regard to data quality, control of the environment, and participant adherence to instructions. We stress that methodological innovation and scientific progress are strongly interrelated. ispartof: ATTENTION PERCEPTION & PSYCHOPHYSICS vol:84 issue:8 pages:2623-2640 ispartof: location:United States status: published
Published: 2022
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16. RETRACTED ARTICLE: Eye tracking: empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline

Author: Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, Hessels, Roy S., Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, and Hessels, Roy S.
Abstract: In this paper, we present a review of how the various aspects of any study using an eye tracker (such as the instrument, methodology, environment, participant, etc.) affect the quality of the recorded eye-tracking data and the obtained eye-movement and gaze measures. We take this review to represent the empirical foundation for reporting guidelines of any study involving an eye tracker. We compare this empirical foundation to five existing reporting guidelines and to a database of 207 published eye-tracking studies. We find that reporting guidelines vary substantially and do not match with actual reporting practices. We end by deriving a minimal, flexible reporting guideline based on empirical research (Section “An empirically based minimal reporting guideline”).-This article was retracted on 16 November 2023
Published: 2023

17. Task-related gaze behaviour in face-to-face dyadic collaboration: Toward an interactive theory?

Author: Hessels, Roy S., Teunisse, Martin K., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Senju, Atsushi, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Hessels, Roy S., Teunisse, Martin K., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Senju, Atsushi, and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Abstract: Visual routines theory posits that vision is critical for guiding sequential actions in the world. Most studies on the link between vision and sequential action have considered individual agents, while substantial human behaviour is characterized by multi-party interaction. Here, the actions of each person may affect what the other can subsequently do. We investigated task execution and gaze allocation of 19 dyads completing a Duplo-model copying task together, while wearing the Pupil Invisible eye tracker. We varied whether all blocks were visible to both participants, and whether verbal communication was allowed. For models in which not all blocks were visible, participants seemed to coordinate their gaze: The distance between the participants' gaze positions was smaller and dyads looked longer at the model concurrently than for models in which all blocks were visible. This was most pronounced when verbal communication was allowed. We conclude that the way the collaborative task was executed depended both on whether visual information was available to both persons, and how communication took place. Modelling task structure and gaze allocation for human-human and human-robot collaboration thus requires more than the observable behaviour of either individual. We discuss whether an interactive visual routines theory ought to be pursued.
Published: 2023

18. How robust are wearable eye trackers to slow and fast head and body movements?

Author: Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Nyström, Marcus, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., and Nyström, Marcus
Abstract: How well can modern wearable eye trackers cope with head and body movement? To investigate this question, we asked four participants to stand still, walk, skip, and jump while fixating a static physical target in space. We did this for six different eye trackers. All the eye trackers were capable of recording gaze during the most dynamic episodes (skipping and jumping). The accuracy became worse as movement got wilder. During skipping and jumping, the biggest error was 5.8(circle). However, most errors were smaller than 3(circle). We discuss the implications of decreased accuracy in the context of different research scenarios.
Published: 2023

19. Gaze and speech behavior in parent–child interactions: The role of conflict and cooperation

Author: Holleman, Gijs A., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Huijding, Jorg, Deković, Maja, Kemner, Chantal, Hessels, Roy S., Holleman, Gijs A., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Huijding, Jorg, Deković, Maja, Kemner, Chantal, and Hessels, Roy S.
Abstract: A primary mode of human social behavior is face-to-face interaction. In this study, we investigated the characteristics of gaze and its relation to speech behavior during video-mediated face-to-face interactions between parents and their preadolescent children. 81 parent–child dyads engaged in conversations about cooperative and conflictive family topics. We used a dual-eye tracking setup that is capable of concurrently recording eye movements, frontal video, and audio from two conversational partners. Our results show that children spoke more in the cooperation-scenario whereas parents spoke more in the conflict-scenario. Parents gazed slightly more at the eyes of their children in the conflict-scenario compared to the cooperation-scenario. Both parents and children looked more at the other's mouth region while listening compared to while speaking. Results are discussed in terms of the role that parents and children take during cooperative and conflictive interactions and how gaze behavior may support and coordinate such interactions.
Published: 2023

20. Retraction Note: Eye tracking: empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline (Behavior Research Methods, (2022), 55, 1, (364-416), 10.3758/s13428-021-01762-8)

Author: Leerstoel Kenemans, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel van Gog, Education and Learning: Development in Interaction, Leerstoel Kemner, Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, Hessels, Roy S., Leerstoel Kenemans, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel van Gog, Education and Learning: Development in Interaction, Leerstoel Kemner, Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, and Hessels, Roy S.
Published: 2023

21. RETRACTED ARTICLE: Eye tracking: empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline

Author: Leerstoel Kenemans, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kemner, Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, Hessels, Roy S., Leerstoel Kenemans, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kemner, Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, and Hessels, Roy S.
Published: 2023

22. Task-related gaze behaviour in face-to-face dyadic collaboration: Toward an interactive theory?

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Hessels, Roy S., Teunisse, Martin K., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Senju, Atsushi, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Hessels, Roy S., Teunisse, Martin K., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Senju, Atsushi, and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Published: 2023

23. How robust are wearable eye trackers to slow and fast head and body movements?

Author: Leerstoel Kenemans, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Kemner, Leerstoel Postma, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Nyström, Marcus, Leerstoel Kenemans, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Kemner, Leerstoel Postma, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., and Nyström, Marcus
Published: 2023

24. Gaze and speech behavior in parent–child interactions: The role of conflict and cooperation

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kenemans, Leerstoel Huijding, Development and Treatment of Psychosocial Problems, Leerstoel Dekovic, Holleman, Gijs A., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Huijding, Jorg, Deković, Maja, Kemner, Chantal, Hessels, Roy S., Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kenemans, Leerstoel Huijding, Development and Treatment of Psychosocial Problems, Leerstoel Dekovic, Holleman, Gijs A., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Huijding, Jorg, Deković, Maja, Kemner, Chantal, and Hessels, Roy S.
Published: 2023

25. Eye tracking: empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline

Author: Leerstoel Kenemans, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel van Gog, Education and Learning: Development in Interaction, Leerstoel Kemner, Holmqvist, Kenneth, Oerbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T. C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Leppanen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Paivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nystrom, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, Hessels, Roy S., Leerstoel Kenemans, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel van Gog, Education and Learning: Development in Interaction, Leerstoel Kemner, Holmqvist, Kenneth, Oerbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T. C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Leppanen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Paivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nystrom, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, and Hessels, Roy S.
Published: 2023

26. Eye tracking:empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline (Retracted Article)

Author: Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, Hessels, Roy S., Holmqvist, Kenneth, Örbom, Saga Lee, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Alexander, Robert G., Andersson, Richard, Benjamins, Jeroen S., Blignaut, Pieter, Brouwer, Anne Marie, Chuang, Lewis L., Dalrymple, Kirsten A., Drieghe, Denis, Dunn, Matt J., Ettinger, Ulrich, Fiedler, Susann, Foulsham, Tom, van der Geest, Jos N., Hansen, Dan Witzner, Hutton, Samuel B., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Kingstone, Alan, Knox, Paul C., Kok, Ellen M., Lee, Helena, Lee, Joy Yeonjoo, Leppänen, Jukka M., Macknik, Stephen, Majaranta, Päivi, Martinez-Conde, Susana, Nuthmann, Antje, Nyström, Marcus, Orquin, Jacob L., Otero-Millan, Jorge, Park, Soon Young, Popelka, Stanislav, Proudlock, Frank, Renkewitz, Frank, Roorda, Austin, Schulte-Mecklenbeck, Michael, Sharif, Bonita, Shic, Frederick, Shovman, Mark, Thomas, Mervyn G., Venrooij, Ward, Zemblys, Raimondas, and Hessels, Roy S.
Abstract: In this paper, we present a review of how the various aspects of any study using an eye tracker (such as the instrument, methodology, environment, participant, etc.) affect the quality of the recorded eye-tracking data and the obtained eye-movement and gaze measures. We take this review to represent the empirical foundation for reporting guidelines of any study involving an eye tracker. We compare this empirical foundation to five existing reporting guidelines and to a database of 207 published eye-tracking studies. We find that reporting guidelines vary substantially and do not match with actual reporting practices. We end by deriving a minimal, flexible reporting guideline based on empirical research (Section “An empirically based minimal reporting guideline”).
Published: 2023

27. Fixation classification: how to merge and select fixation candidates

Author: Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, Hessels, Roy S., Leerstoel Kenemans, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kemner, Leerstoel Kenemans, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, and Leerstoel Kemner
Subjects: Eye tracking, Minimal saccade amplitude, Arts and Humanities (miscellaneous), Fixation classification, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Selection rules, Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, Psychology (miscellaneous), Psychology(all), General Psychology, Minimal fixation duration
Abstract: Eye trackers are applied in many research fields (e.g., cognitive science, medicine, marketing research). To give meaning to the eye-tracking data, researchers have a broad choice of classification methods to extract various behaviors (e.g., saccade, blink, fixation) from the gaze signal. There is extensive literature about the different classification algorithms. Surprisingly, not much is known about the effect of fixation and saccade selection rules that are usually (implicitly) applied. We want to answer the following question: What is the impact of the selection-rule parameters (minimal saccade amplitude and minimal fixation duration) on the distribution of fixation durations? To answer this question, we used eye-tracking data with high and low quality and seven different classification algorithms. We conclude that selection rules play an important role in merging and selecting fixation candidates. For eye-tracking data with good-to-moderate precision (RMSD < 0.5∘), the classification algorithm of choice does not matter too much as long as it is sensitive enough and is followed by a rule that selects saccades with amplitudes larger than 1.0∘ and a rule that selects fixations with duration longer than 60 ms. Because of the importance of selection, researchers should always report whether they performed selection and the values of their parameters.
Published: 2022

28. Eye tracking in human interaction: Possibilities and limitations

Author: Valtakari, Niilo V., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Viktorsson, Charlotte, Nyström, Pär, Falck-Ytter, Terje, Hessels, Roy S., Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kenemans, Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, and Leerstoel Kenemans
Subjects: Eye Movements, Wearable, Computer science, BitTorrent tracker, Movement, ComputingMethodologies_IMAGEPROCESSINGANDCOMPUTERVISION, Data analysis, Decision tree, Wearable computer, Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, Article, 050105 experimental psychology, 03 medical and health sciences, 0302 clinical medicine, Human Aspects of ICT, Arts and Humanities (miscellaneous), Human interaction, Human–computer interaction, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Humans, Psychology, 0501 psychology and cognitive sciences, Eye-Tracking Technology, Research question, Psychology(all), General Psychology, Eye tracking, Psykologi, 05 social sciences, Data quality, Gaze, Research questions, Psychology (miscellaneous), Head, 030217 neurology & neurosurgery, Mänsklig interaktion med IKT
Abstract: There is a long history of interest in looking behavior during human interaction. With the advance of (wearable) video-based eye trackers, it has become possible to measure gaze during many different interactions, even in challenging situations, such as during interactions between young children and their caregivers. We outline the different types of eye-tracking setups that currently exist to investigate gaze during interaction. The setups differ mainly with regard to the nature of the eye-tracking signal (head- or world-centered) and the freedom of movement allowed for the participants (see Figure 1). These crucial, yet often overlooked features place constraints on the research questions that can be answered about human interaction. Furthermore, recent developments in machine learning have made available the measurement of gaze directly from video recordings, without the need for specialized eye-tracking hardware, widening the spectrum of possible eye-tracking setups. We discuss the link between type of eye-tracking setup and the research question being investigated, and end with a decision tree to help researchers judge the appropriateness of specific setups (see Figure 2).
Published: 2021
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29. Eye contact avoidance in crowds: A large wearable eye-tracking study

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Niehorster, Diederick C., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., Holleman, Gijs A., de Kloe, Yentl J.R., Valtakari, Niilo V., van Hal, Sebas, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Leerstoel Kemner, Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Niehorster, Diederick C., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., Holleman, Gijs A., de Kloe, Yentl J.R., Valtakari, Niilo V., van Hal, Sebas, and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Published: 2022

30. Fixation classification: how to merge and select fixation candidates

Author: Leerstoel Kenemans, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kemner, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, Hessels, Roy S., Leerstoel Kenemans, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kemner, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, and Hessels, Roy S.
Published: 2022

31. Perception of the Potential for Interaction in Social Scenes

Author: Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Postma, and Leerstoel Kenemans
Subjects: INFORMATION, media_common.quotation_subject, ACCURACY, Social Sciences, interaction, Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, Article, Artificial Intelligence, Perception, social scenes, EMOTION, Psychology, presence, media_common, ensemble perception, EXPERTISE, SETS, Psychology, Experimental, BIOLOGICAL MOTION, ATTENTION, Sensory Systems, BF1-990, MODEL, Ophthalmology, gist perception, GENDER, Cognitive psychology
Abstract: In urban environments, humans often encounter other people that may engage one in interaction. How do humans perceive such invitations to interact at a glance? We briefly presented participants with pictures of actors carrying out one of 11 behaviors (e.g., waving or looking at a phone) at four camera-actor distances. Participants were asked to describe what they might do in such a situation, how they decided, and what stood out most in the photograph. In addition, participants rated how likely they deemed interaction to take place. Participants formulated clear responses about how they might act. We show convincingly that what participants would do depended on the depicted behavior, but not the camera-actor distance. The likeliness to interact ratings depended both on the depicted behavior and the camera-actor distance. We conclude that humans perceive the "gist" of photographs and that various aspects of the actor, action, and context depicted in photographs are subjectively available at a glance. Our conclusions are discussed in the context of scene perception, social robotics, and intercultural differences. ispartof: I-PERCEPTION vol:12 issue:5 ispartof: location:United States status: published
Published: 2021

32. The pupil-size artefact (PSA) across time, viewing direction, and different eye trackers

Author: Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Cleveland, Dixon, Nyström, Marcus, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Cleveland, Dixon, and Nyström, Marcus
Abstract: The pupil size artefact (PSA) is the gaze deviation reported by an eye tracker during pupil size changes if the eye does not rotate. In the present study, we ask three questions: 1) how stable is the PSA over time, 2) does the PSA depend on properties of the eye tracker set up, and 3) does the PSA depend on the participants’ viewing direction? We found that the PSA is very stable over time for periods as long as 1 year, but may differ between participants. When comparing the magnitude of the PSA between eye trackers, we found the magnitude of the obtained PSA to be related to the direction of the eye-tracker-camera axis, suggesting that the angle between the participants’ viewing direction and the camera axis affects the PSA. We then investigated the PSA as a function of the participants’ viewing direction. The PSA was non-zero for viewing direction 0∘ and depended on the viewing direction. These findings corroborate the suggestion by Choe et al. (Vision Research 118(6755):48–59, 2016), that the PSA can be described by an idiosyncratic and a viewing direction-dependent component. Based on a simulation, we cannot claim that the viewing direction-dependent component of the PSA is caused by the optics of the cornea.
Published: 2021

33. Dogmatic modes of science

Author: Hessels, Roy S., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Hessels, Roy S., and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Published: 2021

34. Correction to: “Is human classification by experienced untrained observers a gold standard in fixation detection?”

Author: Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, Hessels, Roy S., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, and Hessels, Roy S.
Abstract: Correction to: (Behavior Research Methods, (2018), 50, 5,https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0955-x
Published: 2021

35. Dogmatic modes of science

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kenemans, Hessels, Roy S., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kenemans, Hessels, Roy S., and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Published: 2021

36. Eye tracking in human interaction: Possibilities and limitations

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kenemans, Valtakari, Niilo V., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Viktorsson, Charlotte, Nyström, Pär, Falck-Ytter, Terje, Hessels, Roy S., Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kenemans, Valtakari, Niilo V., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Viktorsson, Charlotte, Nyström, Pär, Falck-Ytter, Terje, and Hessels, Roy S.
Published: 2021

37. The pupil-size artefact (PSA) across time, viewing direction, and different eye trackers

Author: Leerstoel Kenemans, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kemner, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Cleveland, Dixon, Nyström, Marcus, Leerstoel Kenemans, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kemner, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Cleveland, Dixon, and Nyström, Marcus
Published: 2021

38. Correction to: “Is human classification by experienced untrained observers a gold standard in fixation detection?”

Author: Leerstoel Kenemans, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kemner, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, Hessels, Roy S., Leerstoel Kenemans, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kemner, Hooge, Ignace T.C., Niehorster, Diederick C., Nyström, Marcus, Andersson, Richard, and Hessels, Roy S.
Published: 2021

39. Perception of the Potential for Interaction in Social Scenes

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Postma, Leerstoel Kenemans, Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Published: 2021

40. 2nd ICMI Workshop on Bridging Social Sciences and AI for Understanding Child Behaviour

Author: Sub Social and Affective Computing, Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Social and Affective Computing, Safavi, Saeid, Kaya, Heysem, Hessels, Roy S., Najafian, Maryam, Hanekamp, Sandra, Sub Social and Affective Computing, Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Social and Affective Computing, Safavi, Saeid, Kaya, Heysem, Hessels, Roy S., Najafian, Maryam, and Hanekamp, Sandra
Published: 2021

41. GlassesViewer: Open-source software for viewing and analyzing data from the Tobii Pro Glasses 2 eye tracker

Author: Niehorster, Diederick C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Afd Psychologische functieleer, Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kemner, Social and personality development: A transactional approach, Leerstoel Postma, Work and Organizational Psychology: Occupational Health Psychology, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Afd Psychologische functieleer, Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Kemner, Social and personality development: A transactional approach, Leerstoel Postma, and Work and Organizational Psychology: Occupational Health Psychology
Subjects: Head-mounted eye tracking, Computer science, Interface (computing), ComputingMethodologies_IMAGEPROCESSINGANDCOMPUTERVISION, Data analysis, Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, Event classification, Accelerometer, Eye, 050105 experimental psychology, Article, law.invention, 03 medical and health sciences, 0302 clinical medicine, Software, Arts and Humanities (miscellaneous), law, Developmental and Educational Psychology, 0501 psychology and cognitive sciences, Computer vision, Psychology(all), General Psychology, Graphical user interface, Event (computing), business.industry, Data stream mining, 05 social sciences, Mobile eye tracking, Gyroscope, Eye movements, Wearable eye tracking, Eye tracking, Artificial intelligence, Psychology (miscellaneous), business, Head, 030217 neurology & neurosurgery, Algorithms
Abstract: We present GlassesViewer, open-source software for viewing and analyzing eye-tracking data of the Tobii Pro Glasses 2 head-mounted eye tracker as well as the scene and eye videos and other data streams (pupil size, gyroscope, accelerometer, and TTL input) that this headset can record. The software provides the following functionality written in MATLAB: (1) a graphical interface for navigating the study- and recording structure produced by the Tobii Glasses 2; (2) functionality to unpack, parse, and synchronize the various data and video streams comprising a Glasses 2 recording; and (3) a graphical interface for viewing the Glasses 2’s gaze direction, pupil size, gyroscope and accelerometer time-series data, along with the recorded scene and eye camera videos. In this latter interface, segments of data can furthermore be labeled through user-provided event classification algorithms or by means of manual annotation. Lastly, the toolbox provides integration with the GazeCode tool by Benjamins et al. (2018), enabling a completely open-source workflow for analyzing Tobii Pro Glasses 2 recordings.
Published: 2020

42. The YOUth study: Rationale, design, and study procedures

Author: Onland-Moret, N Charlotte, Buizer-Voskamp, Jacobine E, Albers, Maria E W A, Brouwer, Rachel M, Buimer, Elizabeth E L, Hessels, Roy S, de Heus, Roel, Huijding, Jorg, Junge, Caroline M M, Mandl, René C W, Pas, Pascal, Vink, Matthijs, van der Wal, Juliëtte J M, Hulshoff Pol, Hilleke E, Kemner, Chantal, Onland-Moret, N Charlotte, Buizer-Voskamp, Jacobine E, Albers, Maria E W A, Brouwer, Rachel M, Buimer, Elizabeth E L, Hessels, Roy S, de Heus, Roel, Huijding, Jorg, Junge, Caroline M M, Mandl, René C W, Pas, Pascal, Vink, Matthijs, van der Wal, Juliëtte J M, Hulshoff Pol, Hilleke E, and Kemner, Chantal
Abstract: Behavioral development in children shows large inter-individual variation, and is driven by the interplay between biological, psychological, and environmental processes. However, there is still little insight into how these processes interact. The YOUth cohort specifically focuses on two core characteristics of behavioral development: social competence and self-regulation. Social competence refers to the ability to engage in meaningful interactions with others, whereas self-regulation is the ability to control one's emotions, behavior, and impulses, to balance between reactivity and control of the reaction, and to adjust to the prevailing environment. YOUth is an accelerated population-based longitudinal cohort study with repeated measurements, centering on two groups: YOUth Baby & Child and YOUth Child & Adolescent. YOUth Baby & Child aims to include 3,000 pregnant women, their partners and children, wheras YOUth Child & Adolescent aims to include 2,000 children aged between 8 and 10 years old and their parents. All participants will be followed for at least 6 years, and potentially longer. In this paper we describe in detail the design of this study, the population included, the determinants, intermediate neurocognitive measures and outcomes included in the study. Furthermore, we describe in detail the procedures of inclusion, informed consent, and study participation.
Published: 2020

43. Looking behavior and potential human interactions during locomotion

Author: Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., Holleman, Gijs A., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., Holleman, Gijs A., and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Abstract: As humans move through parts of their environment, they meet others that may or may not try to interact with them. Where do people look when they meet others? We had participants wearing an eye tracker walk through a university building. On the way, they encountered nine "walkers." Walkers were instructed to e.g. ignore the participant, greet him or her, or attempt to hand out a flyer. The participant's gaze was mostly directed to the currently relevant body parts of the walker. Thus, the participants gaze depended on the walker's action. Individual differences in participant's looking behavior were consistent across walkers. Participants who did not respond to the walker seemed to look less at that walker, although this difference was not statistically significant. We suggest that models of gaze allocation should take social motivation into account.
Published: 2020

44. How does gaze to faces support face-to-face interaction? A review and perspective

Author: Hessels, Roy S. and Hessels, Roy S.
Abstract: Gaze—where one looks, how long, and when—plays an essential part in human social behavior. While many aspects of social gaze have been reviewed, there is no comprehensive review or theoretical framework that describes how gaze to faces supports face-to-face interaction. In this review, I address the following questions: (1) When does gaze need to be allocated to a particular region of a face in order to provide the relevant information for successful interaction; (2) How do humans look at other people, and faces in particular, regardless of whether gaze needs to be directed at a particular region to acquire the relevant visual information; (3) How does gaze support the regulation of interaction? The work reviewed spans psychophysical research, observational research, and eye-tracking research in both lab-based and interactive contexts. Based on the literature overview, I sketch a framework for future research based on dynamic systems theory. The framework holds that gaze should be investigated in relation to sub-states of the interaction, encompassing sub-states of the interactors, the content of the interaction as well as the interactive context. The relevant sub-states for understanding gaze in interaction vary over different timescales from microgenesis to ontogenesis and phylogenesis. The framework has important implications for vision science, psychopathology, developmental science, and social robotics.
Published: 2020

45. FAIR, safe and high-quality data: The data infrastructure and accessibility of the YOUth cohort study

Author: Zondergeld, Jelmer J., Scholten, Ron H.H., Vreede, Barbara M.I., Hessels, Roy S., Pijl, A. G., Buizer-Voskamp, Jacobine E., Rasch, Menno, Lange, Otto A., Veldkamp, Coosje L.S., Zondergeld, Jelmer J., Scholten, Ron H.H., Vreede, Barbara M.I., Hessels, Roy S., Pijl, A. G., Buizer-Voskamp, Jacobine E., Rasch, Menno, Lange, Otto A., and Veldkamp, Coosje L.S.
Abstract: The YOUth cohort study aims to be a trailblazer for open science. Being a large-scale, longitudinal cohort following children in their development from gestation until early adulthood, YOUth collects a vast amount of data through a variety of research techniques. Data are collected through multiple platforms, including facilities managed by Utrecht University and the University Medical Center Utrecht. In order to facilitate appropriate use of its data by research organizations and researchers, YOUth aims to produce high-quality, FAIR data while safeguarding the privacy of participants. This requires an extensive data infrastructure, set up by collaborative efforts of researchers, data managers, IT departments, and the Utrecht University Library. In the spirit of open science, YOUth will share its experience and expertise in setting up a high-quality research data infrastructure for sensitive cohort data. This paper describes the technical aspects of our data and data infrastructure, and the steps taken throughout the study to produce and safely store FAIR and high-quality data. Finally, we will reflect on the organizational aspects that are conducive to the success of setting up such an enterprise, and we consider the financial challenges posed by individual studies investing in sustainable science.
Published: 2020

46. The impact of slippage on the data quality of head-worn eye trackers

Author: Niehorster, Diederick C., Santini, Thiago, Hessels, Roy S., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Kasneci, Enkelejda, Nyström, Marcus, Niehorster, Diederick C., Santini, Thiago, Hessels, Roy S., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Kasneci, Enkelejda, and Nyström, Marcus
Abstract: Mobile head-worn eye trackers allow researchers to record eye-movement data as participants freely move around and interact with their surroundings. However, participant behavior may cause the eye tracker to slip on the participant’s head, potentially strongly affecting data quality. To investigate how this eye-tracker slippage affects data quality, we designed experiments in which participants mimic behaviors that can cause a mobile eye tracker to move. Specifically, we investigated data quality when participants speak, make facial expressions, and move the eye tracker. Four head-worn eye-tracking setups were used: (i) Tobii Pro Glasses 2 in 50 Hz mode, (ii) SMI Eye Tracking Glasses 2.0 60 Hz, (iii) Pupil-Labs’ Pupil in 3D mode, and (iv) Pupil-Labs’ Pupil with the Grip gaze estimation algorithm as implemented in the EyeRecToo software. Our results show that whereas gaze estimates of the Tobii and Grip remained stable when the eye tracker moved, the other systems exhibited significant errors (0.8–3.1∘ increase in gaze deviation over baseline) even for the small amounts of glasses movement that occurred during the speech and facial expressions tasks. We conclude that some of the tested eye-tracking setups may not be suitable for investigating gaze behavior when high accuracy is required, such as during face-to-face interaction scenarios. We recommend that users of mobile head-worn eye trackers perform similar tests with their setups to become aware of its characteristics. This will enable researchers to design experiments that are robust to the limitations of their particular eye-tracking setup.
Published: 2020

47. The Measurement of Eye Contact in Human Interactions: A Scoping Review

Author: Jongerius, Chiara, Hessels, Roy S., Romijn, Johannes A., Smets, Ellen M.A., Hillen, Marij A., Jongerius, Chiara, Hessels, Roy S., Romijn, Johannes A., Smets, Ellen M.A., and Hillen, Marij A.
Abstract: Eye contact is a fundamental aspect of nonverbal communication and therefore important for understanding human interaction. Eye contact has been the subject of research in many disciplines, including communication sciences, social psychology, and psychiatry, and a variety of techniques have been used to measure it. The choice of measurement method has consequences for research outcomes and their interpretation. To ensure that research findings align with study aims and populations, it is essential that methodological choices are well substantiated. Therefore, to enhance the effective examination of eye contact, we performed a literature review of the methods used to study eye contact. We searched Medline, PsycINFO and Web of Science for empirical peer-reviewed articles published in English that described quantitative studies on human eye contact and included a methodological description. The identified studies (N = 109) used two approaches to assess eye contact: direct, i.e., assessing eye contact while it is occurring, and indirect, i.e., assessing eye contact retrospectively (e.g., from video recordings). Within these categories, eight specific techniques were distinguished. Variation was found regarding the reciprocity of eye contact between two individuals, the involvement of an assessor and the behavior of participants while being studied. Measures not involving the interactors in assessment of eye contact and have a higher spatial and temporal resolution, such as eye tracking, have gained popularity. Our results show wide methodological diversity regarding the measurement of eye contact. Although studies often define eye contact as gaze towards an exact location, this may not do justice to the subjective character of eye contact. The various methodologies have hardly ever been compared, limiting the ability to compare findings between studies. Future studies should take notice of the controversy surrounding eye contact measures.
Published: 2020

48. Bridging Social Sciences and AI for Understanding Child Behaviour

Author: Sub Social and Affective Computing, Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Kaya, Heysem, Hessels, Roy S., Najafian, Maryam, Hanekamp, Sandra, Safavi, Saeid, Sub Social and Affective Computing, Leerstoel Kemner, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Kaya, Heysem, Hessels, Roy S., Najafian, Maryam, Hanekamp, Sandra, and Safavi, Saeid
Published: 2020

49. The YOUth study: Rationale, design, and study procedures

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Leerstoel Dekovic, Development and Treatment of Psychosocial Problems, Social and personality development: A transactional approach, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Onland-Moret, N Charlotte, Buizer-Voskamp, Jacobine E, Albers, Maria E W A, Brouwer, Rachel M, Buimer, Elizabeth E L, Hessels, Roy S, de Heus, Roel, Huijding, Jorg, Junge, Caroline M M, Mandl, René C W, Pas, Pascal, Vink, Matthijs, van der Wal, Juliëtte J M, Hulshoff Pol, Hilleke E, Kemner, Chantal, Leerstoel Kemner, Leerstoel Dekovic, Development and Treatment of Psychosocial Problems, Social and personality development: A transactional approach, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Onland-Moret, N Charlotte, Buizer-Voskamp, Jacobine E, Albers, Maria E W A, Brouwer, Rachel M, Buimer, Elizabeth E L, Hessels, Roy S, de Heus, Roel, Huijding, Jorg, Junge, Caroline M M, Mandl, René C W, Pas, Pascal, Vink, Matthijs, van der Wal, Juliëtte J M, Hulshoff Pol, Hilleke E, and Kemner, Chantal
Published: 2020

50. Looking behavior and potential human interactions during locomotion

Author: Leerstoel Kemner, Leerstoel Postma, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Pas, Afd Psychologische functieleer, Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., Holleman, Gijs A., Hooge, Ignace T.C., Leerstoel Kemner, Leerstoel Postma, Experimental Psychology (onderzoeksprogramma PF), Helmholtz Institute, Leerstoel Pas, Afd Psychologische functieleer, Hessels, Roy S., Benjamins, Jeroen S., van Doorn, Andrea J., Koenderink, Jan J., Holleman, Gijs A., and Hooge, Ignace T.C.
Published: 2020

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