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Background and Purpose: Variants in SCN8A, the NaV1.6 channel's coding gene, are characterized by a variety of symptoms, including intractable epileptic seizures, psychomotor delay, progressive cognitive decline, autistic features, ataxia or dystonia. Standard anticonvulsant treatment has a limited impact on the course of disease. Experimental Approach: We investigated the therapeutic potential of eslicarbazepine (S‐licarbazepine; S‐lic), an enhancer of slow inactivation of voltage gated sodium channels, on two variants with biophysical and neuronal gain‐of‐function (G1475R and M1760I) and one variant with biophysical gain‐of‐function but neuronal loss‐of‐function (A1622D) in neuroblastoma cells and in murine primary hippocampal neuron cultures. These three variants cover the broad spectrum of NaV1.6‐associated disease and are linked to representative phenotypes of mild to moderate epilepsy (G1475R), developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (M1760I) and intellectual disability without epilepsy (A1622D). Key Results: Similar to known effects on NaV1.6 wildtype channels, S‐lic predominantly enhances slow inactivation on all tested variants, irrespective of their particular biophysical mechanisms. Beyond that, S‐lic exhibits variant‐specific effects including a partial reversal of pathologically slowed fast inactivation dynamics (A1622D and M1760I) and a trend to reduce enhanced persistent Na+ current by A1622D variant channels. Furthermore, our data in primary transfected neurons reveal that not only variant‐associated hyperexcitability (M1760I and G1475R) but also hypoexcitability (A1622D) can be modulated by S‐lic. Conclusions and Implications: S‐lic has not only substance‐specific effects but also variant‐specific effects. Personalized treatment regimens optimized to achieve such variant‐specific pharmacological modulation may help to reduce adverse side effects and improve the overall therapeutic outcome of SCN8A‐related disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cortical spreading depression (CSD), a wave of depolarization followed by depression of cortical activity, is a pathophysiological process implicated in migraine with aura and various other brain pathologies, such as ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injury. To gain insight into the pathophysiology of CSD, we generated a mouse model for a severe monogenic subtype of migraine with aura, familial hemiplegic migraine type 3 (FHM3). FHM3 is caused by mutations in SCN1A, encoding the voltage-gated Na+ channel NaV1.1 predominantly expressed in inhibitory interneurons. Homozygous Scn1aL1649Q knock-in mice died prematurely, whereas heterozygous mice had a normal lifespan. Heterozygous Scn1aL1649Q knock-in mice compared with WT mice displayed a significantly enhanced susceptibility to CSD. We found L1649Q to cause a gain-of-function effect with an impaired Na+ -channel inactivation and increased ramp Na+ currents leading to hyperactivity of fast-spiking inhibitory interneurons. Brain slice recordings using K+ -sensitive electrodes revealed an increase in extracellular K+ in the early phase of CSD in heterozygous mice, likely representing the mechanistic link between interneuron hyperactivity and CSD initiation. The neuronal phenotype and premature death of homozygous Scn1aL1649Q knock-in mice was partially rescued by GS967, a blocker of persistent Na+ currents. Collectively, our findings identify interneuron hyperactivity as a mechanism to trigger CSD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dravet syndrome (DS) is a developmental epileptic encephalopathy mainly caused by functional NaV1.1 haploinsufficiency in inhibitory interneurons. Recently, a new conditional mouse model expressing the recurrent human p.(Ala1783Val) missense variant has become available. In this study, we provided an electrophysiological characterization of this variant in tsA201 cells, revealing both altered voltage-dependence of activation and slow inactivation without reduced sodium peak current density. Based on these data, simulated interneuron (IN) firing properties in a conductance-based single-compartment model suggested surprisingly similar firing deficits for NaV1.1A1783V and full haploinsufficiency as caused by heterozygous truncation variants. Impaired NaV1.1A1783V channel activation was predicted to have a significantly larger impact on channel function than altered slow inactivation and is therefore proposed as the main mechanism underlying IN dysfunction. The computational model was validated in cortical organotypic slice cultures derived from conditional Scn1a A 1783 V mice. Pan-neuronal activation of the p.Ala1783V in vitro confirmed a predicted IN firing deficit and revealed an accompanying reduction of interneuronal input resistance while demonstrating normal excitability of pyramidal neurons. Altered input resistance was fed back into the model for further refinement. Taken together these data demonstrate that primary loss of function (LOF) gating properties accompanied by altered membrane characteristics may match effects of full haploinsufficiency on the neuronal level despite maintaining physiological peak current density, thereby causing DS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Variants in the SCN2A gene, encoding the voltage‐gated sodium channel NaV1.2, cause a variety of neuropsychiatric syndromes with different severity ranging from self‐limiting epilepsies with early onset to developmental and epileptic encephalopathy with early or late onset and intellectual disability (ID), as well as ID or autism without seizures. Functional analysis of channel defects demonstrated a genotype‐phenotype correlation and suggested effective treatment options for one group of affected patients carrying gain‐of‐function variants. Here, we sum up the functional mechanisms underlying different phenotypes of patients with SCN2A channelopathies and present currently available models that can help in understanding SCN2A‐related disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Variants in the SCN2A gene, encoding the voltage‐gated sodium channel NaV1.2, cause a variety of neuropsychiatric syndromes with different severity ranging from self‐limiting epilepsies with early onset to developmental and epileptic encephalopathy with early or late onset and intellectual disability (ID), as well as ID or autism without seizures. Functional analysis of channel defects demonstrated a genotype‐phenotype correlation and suggested effective treatment options for one group of affected patients carrying gain‐of‐function variants. Here, we sum up the functional mechanisms underlying different phenotypes of patients with SCN2A channelopathies and present currently available models that can help in understanding SCN2A‐related disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mutations in SCN1A and other ion channel genes can cause different epileptic phenotypes, but the precise mechanisms underlying the development of hyperexcitable networks are largely unknown. Here, we present a multisystem analysis of an SCN1A mouse model carrying the Nav1.1-R1648H mutation, which causes febrile seizures and epilepsy in humans. We found a ubiquitous hypoexcitability of interneurons in thalamus, cortex, and hippocampus, without detectable changes in excitatory neurons. Interestingly, somatic Na+ channels in interneurons and persistent Na+ currents were not significantly changed. Instead, the key mechanism of interneuron dysfunction was a deficit of action potential initiation at the axon initial segment that was identified by analyzing action potential firing. This deficit increased with the duration of firing periods, suggesting that increased slow inactivation, as recorded for recombinant mutated channels, could play an important role. The deficit in interneuron firing caused reduced action potential-driven inhibition of excitatory neurons as revealed by less frequent spontaneous but not miniature IPSCs. Multiple approaches indicated increased spontaneous thalamocortical and hippocampal network activity in mutant mice, as follows: (1) more synchronous and higher-frequency firing was recorded in primary neuronal cultures plated on multielectrode arrays; (2) thalamocortical slices examined by field potential recordings revealed spontaneous activities and pathological high-frequency oscillations; and (3) multineuron Ca2+ imaging in hippocampal slices showed increased spontaneous neuronal activity. Thus, an interneuron-specific generalized defect in action potential initiation causes multisystem disinhibition and network hyperexcitability, which can well explain the occurrence of seizures in the studied mouse model and in patients carrying this mutation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Missense mutations in SCN2A, encoding the brain sodium channel NaV1.2, have been described in benign familial neonatal-infantile seizures ( BFNIS), a self-limiting disorder, whereas several SCN2A de novo nonsense mutations have been found in patients with more severe phenotypes including epileptic encephalopathy. We report a family with BFNIS originating from Madagascar. Onset extended from 3 to 9 months of age. Interictal EEGs were normal. In two patients, ictal electroencephalography ( EEG) studies showed partial seizure patterns with secondary generalization in one. Seizures remitted before 18 months of age, with or without medication. Intellectual development was normal. A novel missense mutation of SCN2A, c.4766A>G/p.Tyr1589Cys, was found in a highly conserved region of NaV1.2 (D4/S2-S3). Functional studies using heterologous expression in tsA201 cells and whole-cell patch clamping revealed a depolarizing shift of steady-state inactivation, increased persistent Na+ current, a slowing of fast inactivation and an acceleration of its recovery, thus a gain-of-function. Using an action potential waveform in a voltage-clamp experiment we indicated an increased inward Na+ current at subthreshold voltages, which can explain a neuronal hyperexcitability. Our results suggest that this mutation induces neuronal hyperexcitability, resulting in infantile epilepsy with favorable outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report detailed functional analyses and genotype-phenotype correlations in 392 individuals carrying disease-causing variants in SCN8A, encoding the voltage-gated Na+ channel Nav1.6, with the aim of describing clinical phenotypes related to functional effects. Six different clinical subgroups were identified: Group 1, benign familial infantile epilepsy (n = 15, normal cognition, treatable seizures); Group 2, intermediate epilepsy (n = 33, mild intellectual disability, partially pharmaco-responsive); Group 3, developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (n = 177, severe intellectual disability, majority pharmaco-resistant); Group 4, generalized epilepsy (n = 20, mild to moderate intellectual disability, frequently with absence seizures); Group 5, unclassifiable epilepsy (n = 127); and Group 6, neurodevelopmental disorder without epilepsy (n = 20, mild to moderate intellectual disability). Those in Groups 1-3 presented with focal or multifocal seizures (median age of onset: 4 months) and focal epileptiform discharges, whereas the onset of seizures in patients with generalized epilepsy was later (median: 42 months) with generalized epileptiform discharges. We performed functional studies expressing missense variants in ND7/23 neuroblastoma cells and primary neuronal cultures using recombinant tetrodotoxin-insensitive human Nav1.6 channels and whole-cell patch-clamping. Two variants causing developmental and epileptic encephalopathy showed a strong gain-of-function (hyperpolarizing shift of steady-state activation, strongly increased neuronal firing rate) and one variant causing benign familial infantile epilepsy or intermediate epilepsy showed a mild gain-of-function (defective fast inactivation, less increased firing). In contrast, all three variants causing generalized epilepsy induced a loss-of-function (reduced current amplitudes, depolarizing shift of steady-state activation, reduced neuronal firing). Functional effects were known for 170 individuals. All 136 individuals carrying a functionally tested gain-of-function variant had either focal (n = 97, Groups 1-3) or unclassifiable (n = 39) epilepsy, whereas 34 individuals with a loss-of-function variant had either generalized (n = 14), no (n = 11) or unclassifiable (n = 6) epilepsy; only three had developmental and epileptic encephalopathy. Computational modelling in the gain-of-function group revealed a significant correlation between the severity of the electrophysiological and clinical phenotypes. Gain-of-function variant carriers responded significantly better to sodium channel blockers than to other anti-seizure medications, and the same applied for all individuals in Groups 1-3. In conclusion, our data reveal clear genotype-phenotype correlations between age at seizure onset, type of epilepsy and gain- or loss-of-function effects of SCN8A variants. Generalized epilepsy with absence seizures is the main epilepsy phenotype of loss-of-function variant carriers and the extent of the electrophysiological dysfunction of the gain-of-function variants is a main determinant of the severity of the clinical phenotype in focal epilepsies. Our pharmacological data indicate that sodium channel blockers present a treatment option in SCN8A-related focal epilepsy with onset in the first year of life., (© The Author(s) (2021). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Variants in genes encoding voltage-gated potassium channels are associated with a broad spectrum of neurological diseases including epilepsy, ataxia, and intellectual disability. Knowledge of the resulting functional changes, characterized as overall ion channel gain- or loss-of-function, is essential to guide clinical management including precision medicine therapies. However, for an increasing number of variants, little to no experimental data is available. New tools are needed to evaluate variant functional effects., Methods: We catalogued a comprehensive dataset of 959 functional experiments across 19 voltage-gated potassium channels, leveraging data from 782 unique disease-associated and synthetic variants. We used these data to train a taxonomy-based multi-task learning support vector machine (MTL-SVM), and compared performance to several baseline methods., Findings: MTL-SVM maintains channel family structure during model training, improving overall predictive performance (mean balanced accuracy 0·718 ± 0·041, AU-ROC 0·761 ± 0·063) over baseline (mean balanced accuracy 0·620 ± 0·045, AU-ROC 0·711 ± 0·022). We can obtain meaningful predictions even for channels with few known variants (KCNC1, KCNQ5)., Interpretation: Our model enables functional variant prediction for voltage-gated potassium channels. It may assist in tailoring current and future precision therapies for the increasing number of patients with ion channel disorders., Funding: This work was supported by intramural funding of the Medical Faculty, University of Tuebingen (PATE F.1315137.1), the Federal Ministry for Education and Research (Treat-ION, 01GM1907A/B/G/H) and the German Research Foundation (FOR-2715, Le1030/16-2, He8155/1-2)., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no conflict of interest related to this work., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Dravet syndrome (DS) is a developmental epileptic encephalopathy mainly caused by functional Na V 1.1 haploinsufficiency in inhibitory interneurons. Recently, a new conditional mouse model expressing the recurrent human p.(Ala1783Val) missense variant has become available. In this study, we provided an electrophysiological characterization of this variant in tsA201 cells, revealing both altered voltage-dependence of activation and slow inactivation without reduced sodium peak current density. Based on these data, simulated interneuron (IN) firing properties in a conductance-based single-compartment model suggested surprisingly similar firing deficits for Na V 1.1 A1783V and full haploinsufficiency as caused by heterozygous truncation variants. Impaired Na V 1.1 A1783V channel activation was predicted to have a significantly larger impact on channel function than altered slow inactivation and is therefore proposed as the main mechanism underlying IN dysfunction. The computational model was validated in cortical organotypic slice cultures derived from conditional Scn1a A 1783 V mice. Pan-neuronal activation of the p.Ala1783V in vitro confirmed a predicted IN firing deficit and revealed an accompanying reduction of interneuronal input resistance while demonstrating normal excitability of pyramidal neurons. Altered input resistance was fed back into the model for further refinement. Taken together these data demonstrate that primary loss of function (LOF) gating properties accompanied by altered membrane characteristics may match effects of full haploinsufficiency on the neuronal level despite maintaining physiological peak current density, thereby causing DS., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Layer, Sonnenberg, Pardo González, Benda, Hedrich, Lerche, Koch and Wuttke.)

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEEs) are severe neurodevelopmental disorders often beginning in infancy or early childhood that are characterized by intractable seizures, abundant epileptiform activity on EEG, and developmental impairment or regression. CACNA1E is highly expressed in the central nervous system and encodes the α 1 -subunit of the voltage-gated Ca V 2.3 channel, which conducts high voltage-activated R-type calcium currents that initiate synaptic transmission. Using next-generation sequencing techniques, we identified de novo CACNA1E variants in 30 individuals with DEE, characterized by refractory infantile-onset seizures, severe hypotonia, and profound developmental impairment, often with congenital contractures, macrocephaly, hyperkinetic movement disorders, and early death. Most of the 14, partially recurring, variants cluster within the cytoplasmic ends of all four S6 segments, which form the presumed Ca V 2.3 channel activation gate. Functional analysis of several S6 variants revealed consistent gain-of-function effects comprising facilitated voltage-dependent activation and slowed inactivation. Another variant located in the domain II S4-S5 linker results in facilitated activation and increased current density. Five participants achieved seizure freedom on the anti-epileptic drug topiramate, which blocks R-type calcium channels. We establish pathogenic variants in CACNA1E as a cause of DEEs and suggest facilitated R-type calcium currents as a disease mechanism for human epilepsy and developmental disorders., (Copyright © 2018 American Society of Human Genetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are ligand-gated cation channels that mediate excitatory synaptic transmission. Genetic mutations in multiple NMDAR subunits cause various childhood epilepsy syndromes. Here, we report a de novo recurrent heterozygous missense mutation-c.1999G>A (p.Val667Ile)-in a NMDAR gene previously unrecognized to harbor disease-causing mutations, GRIN2D, identified by exome and candidate panel sequencing in two unrelated children with epileptic encephalopathy. The resulting GluN2D p.Val667Ile exchange occurs in the M3 transmembrane domain involved in channel gating. This gain-of-function mutation increases glutamate and glycine potency by 2-fold, increases channel open probability by 6-fold, and reduces receptor sensitivity to endogenous negative modulators such as extracellular protons. Moreover, this mutation prolongs the deactivation time course after glutamate removal, which controls the synaptic time course. Transfection of cultured neurons with human GRIN2D cDNA harboring c.1999G>A leads to dendritic swelling and neuronal cell death, suggestive of excitotoxicity mediated by NMDAR over-activation. Because both individuals' seizures had proven refractory to conventional antiepileptic medications, the sensitivity of mutant NMDARs to FDA-approved NMDAR antagonists was evaluated. Based on these results, oral memantine was administered to both children, with resulting mild to moderate improvement in seizure burden and development. The older proband subsequently developed refractory status epilepticus, with dramatic electroclinical improvement upon treatment with ketamine and magnesium. Overall, these results suggest that NMDAR antagonists can be useful as adjuvant epilepsy therapy in individuals with GRIN2D gain-of-function mutations. This work further demonstrates the value of functionally evaluating a mutation, enabling mechanistic understanding and therapeutic modeling to realize precision medicine for epilepsy., (Copyright © 2016 American Society of Human Genetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Mutations in SCN1A and other ion channel genes can cause different epileptic phenotypes, but the precise mechanisms underlying the development of hyperexcitable networks are largely unknown. Here, we present a multisystem analysis of an SCN1A mouse model carrying the NaV1.1-R1648H mutation, which causes febrile seizures and epilepsy in humans. We found a ubiquitous hypoexcitability of interneurons in thalamus, cortex, and hippocampus, without detectable changes in excitatory neurons. Interestingly, somatic Na(+) channels in interneurons and persistent Na(+) currents were not significantly changed. Instead, the key mechanism of interneuron dysfunction was a deficit of action potential initiation at the axon initial segment that was identified by analyzing action potential firing. This deficit increased with the duration of firing periods, suggesting that increased slow inactivation, as recorded for recombinant mutated channels, could play an important role. The deficit in interneuron firing caused reduced action potential-driven inhibition of excitatory neurons as revealed by less frequent spontaneous but not miniature IPSCs. Multiple approaches indicated increased spontaneous thalamocortical and hippocampal network activity in mutant mice, as follows: (1) more synchronous and higher-frequency firing was recorded in primary neuronal cultures plated on multielectrode arrays; (2) thalamocortical slices examined by field potential recordings revealed spontaneous activities and pathological high-frequency oscillations; and (3) multineuron Ca(2+) imaging in hippocampal slices showed increased spontaneous neuronal activity. Thus, an interneuron-specific generalized defect in action potential initiation causes multisystem disinhibition and network hyperexcitability, which can well explain the occurrence of seizures in the studied mouse model and in patients carrying this mutation., (Copyright © 2014 the authors 0270-6474/14/3414874-16$15.00/0.)

Neuronal release of modulatory substances provides motor pattern generating circuits with a high degree of flexibility. In vitro studies have characterized the actions of modulatory projection neurons in great detail in the stomatogastric nervous system, a model system for neuromodulatory influences on central pattern generators. Less is known about the activities and actions of modulatory neurons in fully functional and richly modulated network settings, i.e., in intact animals. It is also unknown whether their activities contribute to the motor patterns in different behavioral conditions. Here, we show for the first time the activity and effects of the well-characterized modulatory projection neuron 1 (MCN1) in vivo and compare them to in vitro conditions. MCN1 was always spontaneously active, typically in a rhythmic fashion with its firing being interrupted by ascending inhibitions from the pyloric motor circuit. Its activity contributed to pyloric motor activity, because 1) the cycle period of the motor pattern correlated with MCN1 firing frequency and 2) stimulating MCN1 shortened the cycle period while 3) lesioning of the MCN1 axon reduced motor activity. In addition, gastric mill motor activity was elicited for the duration of the stimulation. Chemosensory stimulation of the antennae moved MCN1 away from baseline activity by increasing its firing frequency. Following this increase, a gastric mill rhythm was elicited and the pyloric cycle period decreased. Lesioning the MCN1 axon prevented these effects. Thus modulatory projection neurons such as MCN1 can control the motor output in vivo, and they participate in the processing of exteroceptive sensory information in behaviorally relevant conditions.