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In the a-stratified method, a popular and efficient item exposure control strategy proposed by H. Chang (H. Chang and Z. Ying, 1999; K. Hau and H. Chang, 2001) for computerized adaptive testing (CAT), the item pool and item selection process has usually been divided into four strata and the corresponding four stages. In a series of simulation studies, researchers examined the optimum number of strata by systematically varying the number of strata, pool size (200, 400, and 800 items), item characteristics (0., 0.5 correlation between difficulty and discrimination), and item selection method (largest information, matching estimated ability with difficulty). Results show that quite independent of the item pool size and the correlation between item discrimination and difficulty, ability estimation deteriorated while the number of over- and under-exposed items decreased with an increase in stratum number. There is a diminishing return in that dividing the pool into too many strata can also be problematic because when the stratum is too small, there are not any items of close difficulty for each particular examinee. The results are in general agreement with the speculation that too few and too many strata may not provide optimum efficiency and balanced item pool utilization. It is shown that the ideal and optimum number of strata to be used in each specific application depend on the item pool structure, test length, and other testing conditions. (Contains 8 figures, 24 tables, and 8 references.) (Author/SLD)

The internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model of self-concept formation was extended by relating Chinese, English, and mathematics achievement to Chinese, English, and mathematics self-concepts in a 5-year longitudinal study based on a large (N=9,482) representative sample of Hong Kong high school students. Tests of the I/E model are typically based on mathematics and English constructs for a single wave of data in Western countries. The research is extended to a non-Western country, testing its cross cultural generalizability and including native and nonnative languages as well as mathematics. Results supported the I/E model. Mathematics, English, and Chinese achievement were highly correlated, but mathematics, English, and Chinese self-concepts were nearly uncorrelated. Mathematics, English, and Chinese achievements each had positive effects on the matching of self-concept domain, but negative effects on non-matching domains. For example, English achievement had a positive effect on English self-concept, but negative effects on mathematics and Chinese self-concepts. These results were stable over time. (Contains 1 figure, 4 tables, and 35 references.) (Author/SLD)

Using structural equation modeling (SEM), researchers examined whether there was a general dominating factor that governed students' implicit theories of intelligence, morality, personality, creativity, and social intelligence. The possible age-related changes of students' implicit theories were also studied. In all, 1,650 elementary and junior high school students (grades 5 to 10) in a large Chinese city participated in the study. A set of questions about the personal attributes being studied was developed, and SEM was used to compare various competitive first- and second-order factor models. Results show a general and dominating implicit theory affecting students' beliefs about the individual personal attributes. In addition, students' entity theories seemed to be stronger as they grew older. However, whether these trends result from natural cognitive maturity or socialization remains to be explored. (Contains 18 references.) (SLD)

This study examines how instruction in the first language (L1), Chinese, and in the second language (L2), English, affects a large sample of students' academic achievement in L1, L2, and content, nonlanguage school subjects, including mathematics, science, geography, and history, in their first 3 years of high school. For all four content area subjects, to a lesser extent in mathematics, late immersion in English as the language of instruction had negative effects that did not vary with initial general ability; were slightly smaller for students initially more proficient in the second language; declined slightly over time for some subjects; and were counteracted somewhat by particularly strong English-language courses. Immersion in English had positive effects on English and, to a lesser extent, Chinese language achievement, but these effects were small relative to the large negative effects in nonlanguage subjects. Whereas previous research has shown positive effects for early-immersion programs that start in kindergarten where language demands are not so great, negative effects for this late immersion program challenge the generality of these findings to high schools, and perhaps even theoretical models of second language acquisition. The paper begins with a literature review, provides a description of the situation in Hong Kong, presents empirical data, and concludes with an exploration of the educational policy implications. (Contains 45 references.) (KFT)

Test security has often been a problem in computerized adaptive testing (CAT) because the traditional wisdom of item selection overly exposes high discrimination items. The a-stratified (STR) design advocated by H. Chang and his collaborators, which uses items of less discrimination in earlier stages of testing, has been shown to be very successful in balancing and hence maximizing the usage of all items in the pool. However, under specific conditions such as the early stages of utilizing completely new item pools, it is possible that the STR strategy is slightly less efficient than the most widely used maximum information (Max-I) approach. In this series of simulation studies with variable length CAT in which testing terminates at a targeted test information, researchers examined whether the use of more items in STR to attain accuracy similar to the Max-I approach in ability estimation would result in a greater exposure of all items. Simulations with self-generated items as well as an operational pool support the usefulness of the STR method in general. However, the results suggest that it is desirable to have fewer in number but less discriminating items at earlier stages of testing and have a larger number of highly discriminating items at later stages. The limitations of this study and implications for future studies are discussed. (Contains 6 tables, 8 figures, and 12 references.) (Author/SLD)

Longitudinal multilevel path models (7,997 students, 44 high schools, 4 years) evaluated the effects of school-average achievement and perceived school status on academic self-concept in Hong Kong, a collectivist culture with a highly achievement-segregated high school system. Consistent with a priori predictions based on the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE), higher school-average achievements led to lower academic self-concepts (contrast effect), whereas higher perceived school status had a counter-balancing positive effect on self-concept (reflected glory, assimilation effect). The negative BFLPE was the net effect of counterbalancing influences, stronger negative contrast effects, and weaker positive assimilation effects, so that controlling perceived school status led to purer, and even more negative, contrast effects. Attending a school where school-average achievement is high simultaneously results in a more demanding basis of comparison for one's own accomplishments (the stronger negative contrast effect) and a source of pride (the weaker positive assimilation effect). (Contains 57 references.) (Author/SM)

In some Western countries, it has been found that studying in schools of high-average ability has negative effects on one's self concept due to social comparisons with high-ability classmates. This has been metaphorically described as the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE). To explore this phenomenon, the perceived school status as a measure of the assimilation effect was examined among 10,366 secondary school students in Hong Kong. In the study, the BFLPE and the effect of perceived school status on self-concept and academic achievement were examined. Students were administered tests in mathematics, English, or Chinese and students' subject-specific academic achievement were examined. Information on students' prior self-concept at Grade 6 was also collected. Multilevel regression analyses showed that for students with initial similar ability, those studying in schools with high-average ability would subsequently have relatively lower self-concept. Those student in high-average schools would possibly have higher academic achievement in some academic subjects than those in schools with lower average ability, and students perceiving their own schools to be of higher status tended to have a more positive self-concept. The results are explained and discussed using social-cultural factors and the frame of reference model. (Contains 54 references.) (MKA)

It has been suggested that students' belief of whether intelligence is malleable and flexible would affect their purpose of achievement (achievement goals). This might, in turn, influence their learning strategies. The present study examined the above relationships among 194 Grade 7 Chinese students in Hong Kong. Structural equation modeling showed that high achievers were more concerned with understanding (deep strategy) and less with facts memorization (surface strategy). The belief that intelligence was a fixed inmalleable quantity (entity theory of intelligence) was related to the goal of getting work done with minimum effort (work avoidance goal), which, in turn, was related to a surface learning strategy. Sex differences showed boys to be stronger in goals which emphasized learning and outperforming others. (Author)

The Internal/External (I/E) Frame of Reference Model and the structure of students' self-concept in various academic subjects were examined using 195 Grade 10 Chinese students in Hong Kong. Results of structural equation analyses supported the following: (1) the distinction between Chinese and English as two independent academic subjects (rather than as a single language subject); (2) the multi-faceted nature of self-concept and academic performance (three subjects rather than a single construct); (3) self-concept of academic subjects as basically uncorrelated factors, whereas respective achievement as substantially correlated factors; (4) strong relationships between academic performance and self-concept of matching subject; and (5) moderate negative relationships between performance and self-concept of non-matching subjects. The applicability of the I/E Model was generally substantiated. A table demonstrating goodness of fit of various models and a model illustrating relationship of self-concept to achievement are included. (Author/LSR)

Chinese University of Hong Kong students (n=844) each rated a "good" teacher and a "poor" teacher using a Chinese translation of the Students' Evaluations of Educational Quality (SEEQ) instrument. Good teachers were rated more favorably than poor teachers on all SEEQ scales, all SEEQ items were judged to be most important by at least some students, and SEEQ items (except, perhaps, feedback on examinations) were seen as appropriate by most students. Relations with background/demographic variables were similar to those reported in North American studies. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis supported the invariance of SEEQ factor structure across three discipline groups and across ratings of good and poor teachers. In the best model, factor loadings were invariant across all six groups, while factor variances and covariances were invariant across the three discipline groups. The results support the use of the SEEQ in this Chinese setting as well as the generalizability of North American research findings. An appendix presents paraphrased versions of SEEQ items. (Contains 4 tables and 56 references.) (Author/SLD)

In the study of students' achievement behavior, it has been argued that learning goals that emphasize self-improvement rather than outperforming others are more desirable. This study examined how students' learning goal orientations were related to their theories of intelligence (e.g., whether intelligence is inborn). The subjects were 400 Chinese seventh graders in Hong Kong. Preliminary factor analyses revealed that students' theories of intelligence were multidimensional. In addition, students with stronger learning goals were more likely to believe that intelligence was malleable and task-specific. Implications for cross-cultural and developmental studies are discussed. (Contains 2 tables and 26 references.) (Author/SLD)

A heuristic example is presented in which parsimony as typically operationalized in indices of fit may not be desirable. In a simplex model of longitudinal data, the failure to include correlated uniquenesses relating to the same indicators on different occasions will typically lead to systematically inflated estimates of stability. (SLD)