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Here we report on ecology and biodiversity of fungi in a unique mycological sanctuary in Britain, where data on species composition have been collected since 1994. To complement the biodiversity data by the information on the fungal ecological interactions and their role in the overall ecosystem functioning, soil properties and the composition of forest litter and field layer, bacterial population numbers and fungal biomass (in terms of ergosterol) were measured in 8 plots covered with different vegetations (beech, birch, birch-oak-beech, grass) over a May–Aug. period, and the results were analysed by correlation analysis and stepwise regression modelling together with data on protozoa and nematodes available from parallel research. The results highlighted the complexity of factors influencing temporal dynamics and spatial variability of fungal biomass in soil and forest litter. Most of the registered interactions appeared to be transient, and this should be taken into account while interpreting environmental observations. Interpretation of the specific relationships is given and implications for further research and overall ecosystem functioning are discussed.

An in vitro oxidative stress test has been developed to assess pollutant tolerance in freshwater algae using Euglena gracilis as the test organism and FeSO4 and NaCl as the pollutants. The test evaluates free radical-mediated oxidative stress through the concomitant application of three biochemical assays: (1) the non-invasive, gas chromatographic-volatile headspace analysis of hydroxyl radicals ( OH) using dimethyl-sulphoxide as a radical trap; (2) the spectroscopic determination of total antioxidant activity; (3) a fluorescent microscopy viability test. In vitro pollutant testing was devised to simulate contaminant loadings that impact urban retention ponds. E. gracilis was found to be tolerant to FeSO4 (2–10% (w/v)) and NaCl (10–5000 ppm) as indicated by high positive viabilities (ca. 100%) and low, or no OH production, as compared to controls. Total antioxidant activity increased with increasing pollutant loading suggesting that the organism has the capacity to enhance antioxidant defence in response to pollutant stress. This in vitro test provides a new approach to monitor the effects of water quality on the biological components of urban and/or polluted aquatic ecosystems. It also has a potential application in the identification of putative algal phytoremediators.

A simple and reproducible algal tissue extraction protocol and a total antioxidant, radical cation decolourisation spectroscopic assay has been developed. This was applied to ascertain the potential for using algae and their stress responses as biological and biochemical indicators of environmental impacts in urban ponds. Total antioxidant and soluble protein profiles were constructed for the green alga Cladophora glomerata , which was seasonally sampled, from three sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) ponds located in an industrial and residential development created on a former Greenfield area in Fife, Scotland. Algal antioxidant profiles were impacted by a combination of lifecycle and pond structural parameters, including: seasonal sampling time, pond site and pond structure (e.g. inlet, outlet). The assay, as applied to algae as primary producer–indicator organisms is recommended for use in aquatic environmental monitoring programmes, which have a requirement to maintain the health status of disturbed aquatic urban ecosystems.

Summary The composition of forest litter and understorey layer, and fungal biomass (in terms of ergosterol) were measured in eight subplots over a winter – spring period (January to April). The sampling site was positioned in a range of woodland habitats (variously dominated by beech, Fagus sylvatica ; birch, Betula pendula × pubescens , and oak Quercus petraea ) and a clear area covered with grass (dominated by Holcus lanatus ). The results were analysed together with data on bacteria and microinvertebrates available from parallel research. Levels of ergosterol in individual subplots ranged between 50 and 160 µ g g − 1 DW. Fungal biomass decreased in March, and then increased signifi cantly in April. Stepwise regression models for ergosterol indicated positive relationships with moisture content (February), bacteria (all but February and March), fl agellates (February) and plant-feeding nematodes and fl ies (January, overall). The relationships with roots, seeds, the collective variable ‘ other microinvertebrates ’ (all March), amoebae (February) and fragments (March, overall) were negative, while the relationship between fungi- and microbial-feeding nematodes changed sign between February ( − ) and March (+). Results of analysis of covariance for fungal ergosterol were signifi cant only for January and the combined dataset. In January, fungi were shown to be signifi cantly related to amoebae, bacteria and a collembolan Folsomia candida , while the only signifi cant predictor returned by the overall model was bacteria. Correlation analysis confi rmed some effects already noted, and revealed a number of further interactions. The results highlighted the complexity of factors infl uencing temporal dynamics and spatial variability of

The integration of a comprehensive monitoring programme conducted in a temperate woodland through statistical analysis and simulation modelling is presented here. The Heron Wood Reserve in Peebleshire, Scotland is a 7.5-ha wood, left untended to facilitate investigation into a natural Scottish Woodland Ecosystem. Data on fungal fruiting have been collected since 1994, and since November 2000 physico-chemical and biotic experiments on soil and woodland litter have also been conducted with the aim to construct and integrate a number of simulation submodels of the various ecological systems present in an untended Scottish woodland. Important systems for modelling include patterns of fungal succession, habitat characteristics and fungal biochemical patterns. A large volume of data has been collected so computer software is used for the storage and handling of data. Microsoft Access was the database used for storage; integration of functions available in Microsoft Excel with a customised software written in Microsoft Visual Basic and Microsoft VBA allowed various statistical modelling tests (e.g. Scheffe analysis of contrast) to be carried out, and the quick display of data in a suitable manner. Model Maker software is used to construct and test simulation models formulated from the data and ultimately to facilitate the running of various simulations. Integration of the separate lines of investigation is demonstrated on the example of a case study describing differences in the dynamics of decomposers in beech- and birch-dominated habitats. Integration of the information obtained allowed us to put forward the following hypothesis. The leaf litter produced by beech trees is of lower quality compared to birch, and decomposition in beech-dominated habitats is delayed (i.e. in comparison to birch-dominated) because of the differences in the extent to which these plants create and maintain a litter and humus layer ( sensu Wardle, Communities and Ecosystems. Linking the Aboveground and Belowground Components, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2002). Hence, the decomposition in beech-dominated habitats mainly occurs somewhat deeper in the soil profile, and may be carried out with some considerable involvement of ectomycorrhizal fungi. The correct understanding of the site-specific peculiarities of the ecological patterns is important for the improvement of biodiversity of woodland and forest ecosystems both in Scotland and worldwide.

Since 1994 data on fungal fruiting have been gathered in the Dawyck Botanic Garden outside Edinburgh, including that for eight plots within a 7.5 ha wood, which has been left unmanaged in order to investigate relationships amongst fungal succession, habitat characteristics and local weather patterns. The climatic data are provided by a small meteorological station situated on site. To handle nearly 4000 entries of data so far collected a computer database was constructed. This assists querying of the information so that changes in fungal communities and patterns of succession can be observed, and the relevant data extracted for further analysis. To aid in this analysis, and to give the user full control over editing, updating and querying the database, a special computer program was compiled. Analysis of the database records revealed that the currently known Dawyck fungal community comprises over 620 different taxa, and the species list increases every year. Although some species of mycorrhizal fungi showed high specificity towards their preferred host either at species (e.g. Lactarius blennius with beech, Lactarius quietus with oak, Russula fellea and Russula mairei with beech), or at genus level (e.g. Suillus spp. with Pinaceae), some other common fungi (e.g. of the genus Amanita ) were found to have very wide host ranges. In addition, unusual mycorrhizal associations have also been recorded. A lime tree ( Tilia ), which is supposedly primarily endomycorrhizal, has been found regularly associated with Russula cyanoxantha , Russula parazurea , Russula pectinata and Inocybe fastigiata . Many common Scottish fungi were found to be associated with introduced exotic trees, which is illustrated on the example of Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas Fir). The software created utilises the Microsoft Office suite of programs. Microsoft Access was used to construct the database, and Microsoft Excel was used for statistical investigations. The software was programmed using Microsoft Visual Basic, and provided a means of extracting the necessary data stored in Access and controlling the formulae used in Excel for their analysis. The recorded seasonal patterns of fungal fruiting was successfully described by a simulation mathematical model comprising differential and algebraic equations. This model may now be used as a submodel within more complex models describing terrestrial ecosystem processes. Examples of model simulations and sensitivity analysis are given and implications for future research discussed.

Geometroid moth abundance, species richness, weather and plant phenology were monitored monthly for 3 y in the lowland dipterocarp forest at Pasoh Forest Reserve, Negeri Sembilan in Malaysia. The intensity of tree flowering in the previous month (with mass events triggered in response to El Niño Southern Oscillations) was an important environmental factor positively correlated with the numbers of species and individuals of geometroid moths that emerge in any month. Abundance for geometroid moths was greater in months with high flowering and flushing in the previous month but low flowering in the month before that. Important weather parameters that influenced moth abundance were monthly rainfall, relative humidity and minimum temperature in previous months. High rainfall 3 mo previously led to an increase in moth abundance (perhaps by stimulating an increase in fresh plant material), whereas high rainfall and relative humidity thereafter served to decrease abundance, possibly by encouraging the spread and activity of pathogens: all these factors impacted on early life-stage survivorship. Similar trends were observed for individual geometroid families and subfamilies. The diversity measurement for the geometroid moths, α from the log-series, was correlated more with weather parameters than with tree phenology.

A stochastic cellular automaton for modelling the dynamics of a two-species fungal microcosm is presented. The state of each cell in the automaton depends on the state of a predefined neighbourhood via a set of conditional probabilities derived from experiments conducted on pairwise combinations of species. The model is tested by detailed comparison with larger-scale experimental microcosms. By employing different hypotheses which relate the pairwise data to the conditional probabilities in the model, the nature of the local and non-local interactions in the community is explored. The hypothesis that the large-scale dynamics are a consequence of independent interactions between species in a local neighbourhood can be excluded at the 5% significance level. The form of the interdependencies is determined and it is shown that the outcome of the interactions at the local neighbourhood-scale depends on the community-scale patterning of individuals. The dynamics of the microcosm are therefore an emergent property of the system of interacting mycelia that cannot be deduced from a study of the components in isolation.

The community dynamics of two- and three-fungal species interactions derived for a tessellated agar model system are described. The microcosm allows for the varied prescription of: (1) the number of fungal species interacting; (2) the spatial configuration (patchiness) of the distribution of individuals; (3) the magnitude of scale of spatial occupation by different fungal individuals; and (4) the operation of antagonistic mechanisms based on contact or longer range diffusible components. Stepwise logistic regressions for two-species interactions are used to inform the design of the multi-species interaction tessellations. The model prescribes and investigates complex parameters, such as spatiotemporal heterogeneity and microcosm scale (e.g. population patchiness and crossing times). Data are quantified as proportion, interface class and state transition class of viable fungal species. Spatiotemporal heterogeneity is represented using a novel application of principal component analysis which shows good intuitive agreement with visual assessment of the interaction outcome patterns, and allows effective comparison of the data as a whole. The model demonstrates the influence of the complex and coordinated behaviour of fungal mycelia on community development: interaction outcome of three-species interactions cannot be directly extrapolated from the relevant binary component interactions; interaction outcomes of the multi-species tessellations appears to be neither random nor fully deterministic; a degree of stochasticity is apparent in all tessellation arrangements; the smaller scale tessellations produce more consistent interaction outcome results, probably because experimental scale affects the duration of transient behaviour; and different initial spatial configurations of inoculum (irrespective of inoculum quantity or proportion) influence community development and reproducibility.

Three physical field models were constructed to assess the effects on soil of a chromated fluoride wood preservative treatment used at the groundline of creosoted electricity distribution poles. One model contained an untreated aged creosoted pole section in sandy loam soil, the second contained a remedially treated aged creosoted pole section in sandy loam soil and the third a similarly treated section in sand-amended sandy loam soil. The models were subjected to the equivalent of 6 months simulated rainfall exposure, and soil samples recovered from each model soilbed were used for the determination of soil dehydrogenase activity, fluoride and total chromium concentrations. Soil dehydrogenase activity was measured on both rye meal-supplemented and unsupplemented soil samples. Irrespective of supplementation, significant reductions in dehydrogenase activity were associated with increased soil concentrations of leached preservative constituents which were found within 5 cm of the treated pole sections. These reductions were enhanced by the lower organic matter content of the sand-amended soil. Supplementation with rye meal resulted in raised levels of dehydrogenase activity in all soil samples, which highlighted the negative effects of preservative soil contamination on microbial activity.

Previously reported results of agar interaction screening studies for biocontrol agents of wood decay basidiomycetes identified two Trichoderma viride isolates that killed 16 out of 19 target fungi. Testing of these isolates in wood was required to assess their performance in preventing decay of wood blocks. Standard testing of chemical wood preservatives is used to determine the toxic concentrations of preservative required to protect wood against decay by basidiomycetes. As no ratified standards for testing biocontrol agents exist, two amended wood block testing standards and a soil contact test were used to assess the effect of the Trichoderma isolates. An agar based system similar to European Standard EN 113 (1980), a soil-block test based on the AWPA Standard M10-77 (1977) and the soil contact system were used with Scots pine and Sitka spruce pre-treated with Trichoderma. Wood blocks treated with either Trichoderma isolate were completely protected against all the basidiomycetes tested, irrespective of the form of inoculum used (spores or mycelium), timber species or wood block test methodology. Implications of the results for the use of agar plate interaction studies for screening biocontrol agents for subsequent use in wood block testing are discussed as well as the merits of the modified standard tests for assessing biocontrol agents.

This paper describes macro- and microassay methods to assess the production of the lytic enzymes laminarinase and chitinase, by a range of Trichoderma isolates, and investigates the effect of nutrient composition, glucose amendment and the addition of basidiomycete cell wall material on the production of these lytic enzymes. Large interstrain and interspecies differences exist in the levels of production of both enzymes. Total activities of the enzymes are greater when isolates are cultured in malt medium, but specific chitinase and laminarinase activities are higher in low nutrient conditions. Glucose repressed the production of both laminarinase and chitinase, although this effect was not common to all Trichoderma isolates for the latter enzyme. Cell walls of both N. lepideus and T. versicolor induced increased chitinase activity but this effect was Trichoderma species specific. Mycoparasitism involving lytic enzymes has been described as the mechanism of action of Trichoderma species in the biological control of commercially important plant pathogens. However, little information is available on the significance of this mechanism for the biological control of wood decay fungi. The importance of mycoparasitism as a mechanism in the biological control of wood decay fungi is briefly discussed.

The failure rate of small firms in the UK is high, but there is little reliable evidence as to what factors account for success or failure in small businesses. Lending organizations have adopted a set of criteria that they use to evaluate new business proposals. One lending organization sponsored a research project with the object of identifying whether a general set of competences could be found which were associated with effective performance in the region. Describes the setting up and findings of the research, and identifies the competences that were found.

Consequences of initial spatial organisation of model fungal communities upon their spatio-temporal development were investigated. Dynamics of prescribed two- and three-species 'communities' developing on tessellated agar tile model systems were analysed in terms of literal maps, principal component analyses, or as the proportion of species extant within tiles. It was established that for two-species interactions of equal patch size, large-scale (i.e. many constituent tiles) behaviour could be extrapolated from the relevant small-scale (i.e. pairs of tiles) interactions. However, relative patch sizes (scale) of species within tessellations influenced the times taken by individuals to colonise tiles and, hence, temporal behaviour of the system. Outcome of arrangements involving three species of equal patch size and inoculum potential, and prescribed with different mixing patterns, could not be directly extrapolated by reference to the outcome of pair-wise interactions between constituent species. Three-species arrangements attempt to limit assembly of lateral aggregates of individuals (patch size) and hence any effects of tile colonisation times, so as to reveal effects of nearest neighbour context within the complex community. Such arrangements indicate that spatial configuration of inoculum influences community development and reproducibility. They also suggest that spatial distribution of species affects persistence of individuals, which would otherwise be expected to be eliminated from the system. Two-species interactions appeared generally more reproducible than those comprising three species, and the sensitivity of fungal community development to temperature was not solely associated with influence on colony extension rate.

There is a need to characterise spatial point patterns of ecological plant communities in which a very large number of points exist for many different plant species. We further investigate principal component analysis for spatial point patterns using functional data analysis tools on second-order summary statistics as introduced in [10, 11]. The approach is used to detect different types of point patterns in a multi-type pattern to classify the species by their spatial arrangement. The developed method is evaluated in a detailed feasibility study, giving rise to a number of recommendations including the choice of the appropriate summary statistic. In addition, we investigate the performance of the method under noisy conditions simulating a number of settings typically occurring in an ecological context. Overall, the method produces stable results, the best results being achieved when the pair-correlation function is used. In all settings the level of noise needs to be very high to invalidate the results.