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Klein (1) challenges two interpretations in Niespolo et al. (2). Regarding his first point, we maintain that Ysterfontein 1 (YFT1) does provide the oldest known example of full coastal adaptation as indicated by the presence of shell middens (cf. ref. 3). Klein inaccurately characterizes the age of the deepest shell midden layers at Klasies River Main (KRM) given in ref. 4. While other workers identify even the oldest light brown sand (LBS) layer at KRM as similar in age or younger than the deepest deposits at YFT1 (cf. refs. 5 and 6), the reference cited by Klein (4) and subsequent dating efforts show that the shell midden lenses in beach-sand deposits within the LBS layer likely postdate the marine isotope stage 5e sea level highstand (∼120 ka) as does the midden at YFT1. However, existing dates suggest that KRM shell middens may, in fact, be younger than YFT1. Layer LBS has been directly dated using multiple techniques that converge on an age of ∼104 ka (5), notably younger than the 95% confidence interval for YFT1 deposition (2). However, complicating matters, a capping speleothem with a U-series age of ∼110 ka is interpreted as a minimum age of the LBS layer at KRM (5). Thus, layer LBS yields conflicting dates and its true age remains uncertain. The next oldest layer at KRM hosting midden deposits (layer shell and sand [SAS]) is definitively younger than YFT1 (5, 7). Thus, there is no basis for the assertion that KRM middens are older than those at YFT1, and we stand by our claim that YFT1 provides the oldest currently known example of systematic coastal resource exploitation.

Modern human behavioral innovations from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) include the earliest indicators of full coastal adaptation evidenced by shell middens, yet many MSA middens remain poorly dated. We apply (230)Th/U burial dating to ostrich eggshells (OES) from Ysterfontein 1 (YFT1, Western Cape, South Africa), a stratified MSA shell midden. (230)Th/U burial ages of YFT1 OES are relatively precise (median ± 2.7%), consistent with other age constraints, and preserve stratigraphic principles. Bayesian age–depth modeling indicates YFT1 was deposited between 119.9 to 113.1 thousand years ago (ka) (95% CI of model ages), and the entire 3.8 m thick midden may have accumulated within ∼2,300 y. Stable carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes of OES indicate that during occupation the local environment was dominated by C(3) vegetation and was initially significantly wetter than at present but became drier and cooler with time. Integrating archaeological evidence with OES (230)Th/U ages and stable isotopes shows the following: 1) YFT1 is the oldest shell midden known, providing minimum constraints on full coastal adaptation by ∼120 ka; 2) despite rapid sea-level drop and other climatic changes during occupation, relative shellfish proportions and sizes remain similar, suggesting adaptive foraging along a changing coastline; 3) the YFT1 lithic technocomplex is similar to other west coast assemblages but distinct from potentially synchronous industries along the southern African coast, suggesting human populations were fragmented between seasonal rainfall zones; and 4) accumulation rates (up to 1.8 m/ka) are much higher than previously observed for dated, stratified MSA middens, implying more intense site occupation akin to Later Stone Age middens.

Specialist predators are generally negatively impacted by habitat change. Predators that inhabit transformed areas are usually forced to diversify their diet and this departure away from traditional resources can have negative consequences for fitness and demographic parameters. We consider this relationship as it applies to Verreaux's eagles Aquila verreauxii, which is typically considered to be a highly specialised predator of hyraxes (Procavia and Heterohyrax spp.). We investigate diet in relation to land cover in two adjacent areas of South Africa and explore the links between diet diversity, the percentage of hyrax consumed, and the breeding performance of eagles. We also examine these same patterns using data from other studies. We found that diet diversity was greater in the agriculturally developed Sandveld region compared to the natural Cederberg region. Proportions of the three main prey types were correlated with the proportion of agriculturally developed land around the nest site. Breeding performance was correlated with the diet, but not in the manner expected, with breeding productivity being greater in regions with large diet diversity and a small proportion of hyrax in the diet. We found similar patterns when placing our results into a broader geographical context using other dietary studies of Verreaux's eagles, suggesting our results were not unique to our study system. Thus, our results suggest that diet diversification does not necessarily impinge on breeding performance in the presence of adequate alternative prey resources. This research adds to the growing number of studies suggesting that some predators may be adaptable up to a threshold level of habitat transformation. These results have implications for predicting changes on such species by anthropogenic habitat transformation and highlight the potential for agriculturally developed areas to maintain a conservation value when habitat heterogeneity is maintained.

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[EN]: Studying the diet of wild animals is central for understanding their flexibility in food requirements. The Black Harrier Circus maurus is an endangered raptor in South Africa and Namibia. To date, information about the diet of the species is insufficient for a comprehensive understanding of its ecology. We studied the diet composition of breeding Black Harriers using c. 1 000 pellets (>1 700 identified prey) collected at nest sites in two geographical regions (coastal vs inland) over 10 breeding seasons (2006–2015). We show the importance of small mammals in Black Harrier diet (64.4% and 78.2% of prey and consumed biomass, respectively), with the four-striped mouse Rhabdomys pumilio being a main trophic resource. We also reveal the importance of birds and reptiles as alternative prey, particularly in inland regions, and show inter-annual variations in diet in both regions. Our study confirms that this species can be considered a small mammal specialist. Specialist predators are more vulnerable than generalist ones and diet specialisation has been linked with a poorer conservation status in other species. Our results thus have implications for the conservation of this species in southern Africa. These are highlighted for the long-term sustainability of this threatened endemic species. [FR]: L’étude du régime alimentaire des animaux sauvages est essentielle afin d’étudier leurs besoins, leur flexibilité ou dépendance. Le busard noir Circus maurus est un rapace rare et menacé, endémique d’Afrique méridionale. L’information actuelle sur son alimentation est insuffisante pour une compréhension globale de leur écologie. Dans cet article, nous étudions le régime alimentaire d’individus reproducteurs en utilisant l´analyse d’environ 1 000 pelotes de rejection (>1 700 proies identifiées) collectées au nid dans deux régions géographiques contrastées (côtière et intérieur) pendant 10 saisons de reproduction (2006–2015). Nous montrons l’importance des micromammifères dans l’alimentation du busard noir (64.4 % de proies et 78.2% de biomasse consommée) et en particulier du rat de champ rayé Rhabdomys pumilio qui est la principale ressource trophique. Nous révélons également l’importance des oiseaux et reptiles comme proies alternatives, notamment dans les régions de l’intérieur, et montrons des variations interannuelles du régime alimentaire dans les deux régions. Notre étude confirme que cette espèce peut être considérée comme spécialiste de micromammifères. Les prédateurs spécialistes sont d’ordinaire plus vulnérables que les généralistes, et leur spécialisation alimentaire va généralement de pair avec un statut de conservation plus défavorable que pour d’autres prédateurs généralistes. Nos résultats ont des implications pour la conservation et la viabilité à long terme de cette espèce endémique et menacée d’Afrique méridionale. This study was funded by the National Research Foundation of South Africa (NRF; Grant no. 90582 to RES), the DST-NRF Centre ofExcellence at the Percy FitzPatrick Institute, University of Cape Town, the CSIC (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas PIE 201330E106) and by private landowners and organisations. Particular thanks for economic support are due to BirdLife South Africa, Inkwazi and Wits Bird Club, “Golden Fleece Merino”, the University of Cape Town Research Council (URC), Jakkalsfontein Private Nature Reserve, the Two Oceans Slope Soarers (TOSS), Natural Research UK, Hawk Mountain (USA), the Peregrine Fund, Sven Carlsson-Smith, Nial Perrins, Chris Cory, Gisela Ortner and James Smith. FM and BA thank the University of Cape Town for financial support (2015 Science Faculty Distinguished Visitor award to FM; and Foreign Research Fellowship through A Amar to BA).

There is a lot of interest in combining aftertreatment system components to reduce packaging volume and cost. One example of this is the SCRF®, which consists of an NH3 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) catalyst coated on a diesel particulate filter (DPF). In this work, a one-dimensional model for an SCRF® has been developed. The model was produced by combining kinetics for either a Cu-zeolite or an Fe-zeolite SCR catalyst, originally developed for a flow-through monolith, with a physical model for a coated DPF. The kinetics for the various NH3NOX reactions, as well as for NH3 oxidation, were developed from laboratory microreactor data. The model is capable of predicting the conversion of NO and NO2, NH3 slip and the formation of N2O, as well as effects associated with NH3 storage and desorption. In the model, reactants can diffuse to the catalytic coating both from the gas flowing along the coated channel (as in a flow-through monolith) and from the gas flowing through the filter wall. The model has been validated against engine data for both light- and heavy-duty diesel conditions. In general, good agreement between model prediction and the experimental data was achieved for both Cu- and Fe-zeolite SCRF®s. It is demonstrated that SCR kinetics developed for a flow-through monolith are capable of giving a good prediction when the same coating is applied to a wall-flow filter in the SCRF®. The model has been applied to investigate the interaction between SCR and DPF functionality. The presence of soot on the SCRF® is predicted to have no significant impact on NOX conversion. Conversely, SCR activity (NOX reduction) is predicted to significantly retard the rate of soot removal by oxidation with NO2. Both predictions are in agreement with experimental results.

Human fossils and the genetics of extant human populations indicate that living people derive primarily from an African population that lived within the last 200,000 years. Yet it was only ≈50,000 years ago that the descendants of this population spread to Eurasia, where they swamped or replaced the Neanderthals and other nonmodern Eurasians. Based on archaeological observations, the most plausible hypothesis for the delay is that Africans and Eurasians were behaviorally similar until 50,000 years ago, and it was only at this time that Africans developed a behavioral advantage. The archaeological findings come primarily from South Africa, where they suggest that the advantage involved much more effective use of coastal resources. Until now, the evidence has come mostly from deeply stratified caves on the south (Indian Ocean) coast. Here, we summarize results from recent excavations at Ysterfontein 1, a deeply stratified shelter in a contrasting environment on the west (Atlantic) coast. The Ysterfontein 1 samples of human food debris must be enlarged for a full comparison to samples from other relevant sites, but they already corroborate two inferences drawn from south coast sites: ( i ) coastal foragers before 50,000 years ago did not fish routinely, probably for lack of appropriate technology, and ( ii ) they collected tortoises and shellfish less intensively than later people, probably because their populations were smaller.

Renewed excavations at Die Kelders Cave 1, South Africa, have confirmed and augmented prior findings. The new excavations focused on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) deposits, but they added seeds, pips, and crayfish to the categories of Later Stone Age (LSA) food debris and artifacts recovered earlier. With respect to the MSA deposits, the principal new findings are: 1) previously unrecognized site formation processes ,including phosphatization by guano, microfaults, and slippage faces, and numerous minor interruptions in sand accumulation that correspond to Short occupation episodes; 2) ESR dates that place the top of the MSA sequence between 80,000 and 60,000 years b.p.; 3) fine-grained rock types, flake-blade sizes and other features that suggest the top of the sequence contains either the Howieson's Poort or a similar silcrete-rich variant of the MSA; 4) a pattern of artifact and bone abundance in newly recognized microstrati-graphic units that suggests that eagle owls (rather than people) accumula...

Examination of beached corpses of 244 Sooty Shearwaters (Puffinus griseus) from the southwestern Cape, South Africa, showed that simple descendent primary molt occurs from December to June, with most records being in the months of February and March. Based on percentage feather mass grown, primary molt takes a mean of 159 days for completion, with mean estimated starting and completion dates of 2 January and 10 June. Because the completion of breeding extends from late March to early May, the birds studied cannot have bred successfully in the previous austral summer and were probably prebreeders. Unlike the situation in the North Pacific Ocean, Sooty Shearwaters in the North Atlantic Ocean do not undergo primary molt. The hypothesis that Sooty Shearwaters of breeding age migrate preferentially into the North Pacific, whereas young birds first molt in the South Atlantic Ocean before migrating into the North Atlantic, needs to be tested by extensive banding of birds at the breeding localities.

The Elandsfontein site, Western Cape Province, South Africa, is well known for an archaic hominin skullcap associated with later Acheulean artifacts. The site has also provided nearly 13,000 mammalian bones that can be identified to skeletal part and taxon. The assemblage derives from 49 species, 15 of which have no historic descendants. Comparisons to radiometrically dated faunas in eastern Africa indicate an age between 1 million and 600 thousand years ago. Unique features of the fauna, including the late occurrence of a dirk-toothed cat and a sivathere, may reflect its geographic origin in a region that was notable historically for its distinctive climate and high degree of biotic endemism. Together, taxonomic composition, geomorphic setting, and pollen extracted from coprolites indicate the proximity of a large marsh or pond, maintained by a higher water table. The small average size of the black-backed jackals implies relatively mild temperatures. The sum of the evidence places bone accumulation during one of the mid-Pleistocene interglacials that were longer and cooler than later ones, including the Holocene. The geomorphic context of the fauna presents no evidence for catastrophe, and most deaths probably resulted from attritional factors that disproportionately killed the young and old. However, only the dental-age profile of long-horned buffalo supports this directly. Field collection methods biased skeletal-part representation, but originally, it probably resembled the pattern in the younger, marsh-edge Acheulean occurrence at Duinefontein 2, 45 km to the south. Excavation there exposed multiple vertebral spreads, which probably mark carcasses from which hominins or large carnivores removed the meatier elements. Bone damage at both sites suggests that, despite abundant artifacts, hominins were much less important than carnivores in the bone accumulation. Together with limited observations from other sites, Elandsfontein and Duinefontein provisionally suggest that Acheulean-age hominins obtained few large mammals, whether by hunting or scavenging. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Die Kelders Cave 1, first excavated under the direction of Franz Schweitzer in 1969-1973, was re-excavated between 1992 and 1995 by a combined team from the South African Museum, SUNY at Stony Brook, and Stanford University. These renewed excavations enlarged the artefactual and faunal samples from the inadequately sampled and less intensively excavated lower Middle Stone Age (MSA) layers, increased our understanding of the complex site formation processes within the cave, enlarged the hominid sample from the MSA deposits, and generated ESR, TL, and OSL dates for the MSA layers. Importantly, these new excavations dramatically improved our comprehension of the vertical and lateral characteristics of the MSA stratigraphy. Surface plotting of the MSA layers has led to the identification of at least two major zones of subsidence that significantly warped the layers, draping some along the eroding surface contours of major blocks of fallen limestone roof rock. A third zone of subsidence is probably present in the older excavations. Dramatic roof falls of very large limestone blocks occurred at least twice-once in the middle of Layer 4/5 where the roof blocks were only slightly weathered after collapse, and at the top of Layer 6 where the blocks weathered heavily after collapse, producing a zone of decomposed rock around the blocks. Many of the sandy strata are cut by small and localized faults and slippages. All of the strata documented by Schweitzer's excavations are present throughout the exposed area to the west of his excavated area, where many of them thicken and become more complex. Layer 6, the thickest MSA layer, becomes less diagenetically altered and compressed to the west.

Excavations at Duinefontein (DFT) 2 near Cape Town, South Africa have recovered numerous stone artefacts and animal bones on an ancient surface sealed within iron-stained eolian sands. U-series analysis of an overlying calcrete places the sands before 150 ka ago, while the large mammal taxa imply an age between 400 and 200 ka ago. The artefacts include a classic Acheulean handaxe and probable biface shaping flakes that support this age estimate. The principal mammalian species are long-horned buffalo, black wildebeest, greater kudu, Cape zebra, and grysbok/steenbok, which imply a grass-and-bush mosaic instead of the historic small-leafed shrubland. Hippopotamus and reedbuck indicate that water stood nearby, probably in dune swales. The large mammal bones are mostly vertebrae and other axial elements, often in near-anatomical order. Both proximal and distal appendicular elements are rare. Bones with carnivore damage are common, but ones with stone tool marks are scarce. The sum suggests a water-edge attritional death site where people played a minimal role and carcasses were disarticulated mainly by carnivore feeding and by trampling. Stone tool marks tend to be equally rare at other Acheulean attritional death sites, and the implication may be that Acheulean people rarely obtained large mammals, whether by hunting or scavenging. Human scavengers at DFT2 would not have encountered a disproportionate number of distal (versus proximal) limb elements, and it follows that the tendency for distal elements to dominate many archeological assemblages need not reflect scavenging versus hunting. Even if DFT2 was not itself a locus of intense human activity, it provides a useful baseline for evaluating bone damage, skeletal part representation, and other variables at sites where people were deeply involved.

At breakfast-time on 31 March 1984, ten ministers emerged wearily from the Charlemagne building in Brussels. The European Community's Council of Ministers had just completed another all-night session of negotiation, and had reached agreement on a wide-ranging package of decisions on agricultural policy. What had these ten ministers of agriculture decided, how was it decided, why was it necessary, and did it constitute a reform of the Common Agricultural Policy? This article tries to give plain answers to those questions. Plain language is important, for one of the problems of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is that its operations are too often couched in impenetrable jargon. For most political commentators, and for many professional economists, it is a territory where the language cannot be understood, and which therefore provokes hostility or distrust. Since the issues at stake are important not only for agriculture but for the future of the Community as a political enterprise, the territory deserves to be better mapped and better understood.'

Report of excavations at Nelson Bay Cave, some sixty miles west of Klasies River Mouth, in four seasons between 1964 and 1979, with full accounts of material culture, and environmental data from deposits ranging between 5890 and 455 BP.