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"Left" and "right" coordinates control our spatial behavior and even influence abstract thoughts. For number concepts, horizontal spatial-numerical associations (SNAs) have been widely documented: we associate few with left and many with right. Importantly, increments are universally coded on the right side even in preverbal humans and nonhuman animals, thus questioning the fundamental role of directional cultural habits, such as reading or finger counting. Here, we propose a biological, nonnumerical mechanism for the origin of SNAs on the basis of asymmetric tuning of animal brains for different spatial frequencies (SFs). The resulting selective visual processing predicts both universal SNAs and their context-dependence. We support our proposal by analyzing the stimuli used to document SNAs in newborns for their SF content. As predicted, the SFs contained in visual patterns with few versus many elements preferentially engage right versus left brain hemispheres, respectively, thus predicting left-versus rightward behavioral biases. Our "brain's asymmetric frequency tuning" hypothesis explains the perceptual origin of horizontal SNAs for nonsymbolic visual numerosities and might be extensible to the auditory domain.

The study has two objectives: (1) to introduce grip force recording as a new technique for studying embodied numerical processing; and (2) to demonstrate how three competing accounts of numerical magnitude representation can be tested by using this new technique: the Mental Number Line (MNL), A Theory of Magnitude (ATOM) and Embodied Cognition (finger counting-based) account. While 26 healthy adults processed visually presented single digits in a go/no-go n-back paradigm, their passive holding forces for two small sensors were recorded in both hands. Spontaneous and unconscious grip force changes related to number magnitude occurred in the left hand already 100–140 ms after stimulus presentation and continued systematically. Our results support a two-step model of number processing where an initial stage is related to the automatic activation of all stimulus properties whereas a later stage consists of deeper conscious processing of the stimulus. This interpretation generalizes previous work with linguistic stimuli and elaborates the timeline of embodied cognition. We hope that the use of grip force recording will advance the field of numerical cognition research.

Evidence has revealed an association between finger gnosis and arithmetic skills in young Western children, however, it is unknown whether such an association can be generalized to Chinese children and what mechanism may underlie this relationship. This study examines whether finger gnosis is associated with addition skills in young Chinese children and, if so, what numerical skills could explain this correlation. A total of 102 Chinese children aged 5-6 years were asked to complete finger gnosis and addition tasks in Study 1. Results showed that finger gnosis was significantly associated with addition performance. However, no significant correlation was found between finger gnosis and the use of finger counting in solving addition problems. Moreover, girls' finger gnosis was better than boys', and children with musical training demonstrated better finger gnosis than those without. In Study 2, 16 children with high finger gnosis and 20 children with low finger gnosis were selected from the children in Study 1 and asked to perform enumeration, order judgment, number sense, and number line estimation. Children with high finger gnosis performed better in number line estimation than their counterparts with low finger gnosis. Moreover, the number line estimation fully mediated the relationship between finger gnosis and addition performance. Together, these studies provide evidence of a correlation between finger gnosis and addition skills. They also highlight the importance of number line estimation in bridging this association.

International audience; Fingers have been recurrently associated with number development and mathematical achievement. Specifically finger gnosis have been considered as a potential precursor of numerical learning. However recent findings cast doubt on the existence of a link between finger gnosis and numerical skills. In fact, finger gnosis and canonical finger representations are both different aspects that could influence numerical development but have not been distinguished in previous research. The current study aimed at dissociating the specific contribution of both aspects in a longitudinal setting. Children were tested twice: at the end of kindergarten and nine months later, in first grade. We used two specific finger tasks a finger gnosis task and a rapid-automatized-naming of finger numeral configurations (finger RAN). Numerical representation was assessed by number line estimations in kindergarten and first grade. Results showed that finger gnosis were not related to numerical representation accuracy at any time point. Finger RAN performances though were uniquely related to the numerical representation accuracy one year later, even out of the range of finger counting. The visual recognition of numbers as supported by finger configuration thus seems to be important when fingers support numerical representations. The present findings have theoretical implications about the link between fingers and number(s) across development.

The hand with which one starts to count has been shown repeatedly to influence numerical performance. However, methods vary greatly in how researchers determine starting hand. As such, it is impossible to say whether starting hand reflects one construct that is being differently measured, or if these methods reflect different constructs. To investigate these possibilities, we employed a binary magnitude comparison task known to elicit spatial-numerical biases and embodied number magnitude effects, as well as both cardinal and ordinal assessments of starting hand. In addition to this, we further examined whether being made aware of one’s finger-counting habits prior to the numerical task (through a finger-counting inventory) may alter performance during a spatial-numerical reaction-time task. Ordinal and cardinal starting hand classifications disagreed significantly in their classification of left vs. right-starters and predicted different aspects of numerical performance, which further interacted with procedure-order. The pattern of results suggest that 1) ordinal and cardinal aspects of finger-counting are dissociable and predict differing aspects of embodied numerosity, and 2) that assessing finger counting habits before performing a numerical task may affect performance on that task. Therefore, these methodological variations have important theoretical ramifications and need to be reported in greater detail in future work.

Background. Embodied finger counting has been shown to have cross-cultural differences in previous studies (Lindemann, Alipour, & Fisher, 2011; Soto & Lalain, 2008). However, their results were contradictory in reference to Western populations with regard to the hand preferred: The first study showed that in Western countries — Europe and the United States — participants preferred to start with the left hand (whereas in the Middle East — Iran — they used the right hand); the second study showed that participants in France preferred the right hand. Objective. Our study aimed to observe these differences in two countries, Spain (Western Europe) and Russia (Eastern Europe part), although taking into account the variety of cultural or ethnic groups who live there. Design. The observational/descriptive study, together with correlational analysis of the finger-counting pattern (from 1 to 10) used by children aged 10 to 12 who had not been taught to use their fingers for counting, considered factors of cultural origin and hand dominance. The possible effects of this action on cognition — in our case, math achievement — were considered also. Results and conclusion. The differences in the frequency of the finger-counting patterns might suggest cultural-individual differences in performance; however, the correlational analysis did not reveal that these differences were statistically significant, either for gender or for mark in math. However, hand dominance was a significant predictor of the preferred hand with which to start counting.

Children typically learn basic numerical and arithmetic principles using finger-based representations. However, whether or not reliance on finger-based representations is beneficial or detrimental is the subject of an ongoing debate between researchers in neurocognition and mathematics education. From the neurocognitive perspective, finger counting provides multisensory input, which conveys both cardinal and ordinal aspects of numbers. Recent data indicate that children with good finger-based numerical representations show better arithmetic skills and that training finger gnosis, or “finger sense,” enhances mathematical skills. Therefore neurocognitive researchers conclude that elaborate finger-based numerical representations are beneficial for later numerical development. However, research in mathematics education recommends fostering mentally based numerical representations so as to induce children to abandon finger counting. More precisely, mathematics education recommends first using finger counting, then concrete structured representations and, finally, mental representations of numbers to perform numerical operations. Taken together, these results reveal an important debate between neurocognitive and mathematics education research concerning the benefits and detriments of finger-based strategies for numerical development. In the present review, the rationale of both lines of evidence will be discussed.

In this paper, we present neuro-robotics models with a deep artificial neural network capable of generating finger counting positions and number estimation. We first train the model in an unsupervised manner where each layer is treated as a Restricted Boltzmann Machine or an autoencoder. Such a model is further trained in a supervised way. This type of pre-training is tested on our baseline model and two methods of pre-training are compared. The network is extended to produce finger counting positions. The performance in number estimation of such an extended model is evaluated. We test the hypothesis if the subitizing process can be obtained by one single model used also for estimation of higher numerosities. The results confirm the importance of unsupervised training in our enumeration task and show some similarities to human behaviour in the case of subitizing., 8 pages, accepted and presented on a conference. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI)

Representations of the fingers are embodied in our cognition and influence performance in enumeration tasks. Among deaf signers, the fingers also serve as a tool for communication in sign language. Previous studies in normal hearing (NH) participants showed effects of embodiment (i.e., embodied numerosity) on tactile enumeration using the fingers of one hand. In this research, we examined the influence of extensive visuo-manual use on tactile enumeration among the deaf. We carried out four enumeration task experiments, using 1-5 stimuli, on a profoundly deaf group (n = 16) and a matching NH group (n = 15): (a) tactile enumeration using one hand, (b) tactile enumeration using two hands, (c) visual enumeration of finger signs, and (d) visual enumeration of dots. In the tactile tasks, we found salient embodied effects in the deaf group compared to the NH group. In the visual enumeration of finger signs task, we controlled the meanings of the stimuli presentation type (e.g., finger-counting habit, fingerspelled letters, both or neither). Interestingly, when comparing fingerspelled letters to neutrals (i.e., not letters or numerical finger-counting signs), an inhibition pattern was observed among the deaf. The findings uncover the influence of rich visuo-manual experiences and language on embodied representations. In addition, we propose that these influences can partially account for the lag in mathematical competencies in the deaf compared to NH peers. Lastly, we further discuss how our findings support a contemporary model for mental numerical representations and finger-counting habits.

The diversion of a driver&rsquo, s attention from driving can be catastrophic. Given that conventional button- and touch-based interfaces may distract the driver, developing novel distraction-free interfaces for the various devices present in cars has becomes necessary. Hand gesture recognition may provide an alternative interface inside cars. Given that cars are the targeted application area, we determined the optimal location for the radar sensor, so that the signal reflected from the driver&rsquo, s hand during gesturing is unaffected by interference from the motion of the driver&rsquo, s body or other motions within the car. We implemented a Convolutional Neural Network-based technique to recognize the finger-counting-based hand gestures using an Impulse Radio (IR) radar sensor. The accuracy of the proposed method was sufficiently high for real-world applications.

This short paper describes an approach for collecting a dataset of hand’s pictures and training a Deep Learning network that could enable the iCub robot to count on its fingers using solely its own cameras. Such a skill, mimicking children’s habits, can support arithmetic learning in a baby robot, an important step in creating artificial intelligence for robots that could learn like children in the context of cognitive developmental robotics. Preliminary results show the approach is promising in terms of accuracy.

The main goal of the present study was to explore strategy selection in high mathematical anxiety (MA) individuals, and to test the role of development in the selection of strategy. We tested 2nd, 3rd and 5th graders with high or low MA in simple and complex addition problems. Participants first solved the problems and were then asked to report the strategy that they used. During elementary school, typically developing children change strategy use. In the first years backup strategies of counting are very frequent, but with maturation and schooling, they can shift to memory- based strategies. Hence, we tested finger counting and advanced memory based strategies in high MA children. In finger counting, high MA children showed developmental delay. For example, in the third grade, low MA children stopped using finger counting, while high MA participants continued to use it. However, in the case of advanced strategy use, we found a different pattern: regardless of age, high MA children used less advanced strategies than low MA participants. Moreover, usage of advanced memory based strategies was modulated by visuospatial working memory abilities in the two groups. The present results suggest that the MA participant has atypical developmental trajectories in strategy use.

A 24-year-old man presented with sudden-onset bilateral loss of vision with persistent headaches for 3 days. His visual acuity (VA) in the right eye was 20/1200 and in the left eye was finger counting close to face. Both pupils were equally reactive and anterior segment examination was normal

The virtual Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak device (VEAST) is a very complicated 3D model, to interact with which, the traditional interaction devices are limited and inefficient. However, with the development of human-computer interaction (HCI), the hand gesture interaction has become a much popular choice in recent years. In this paper, we propose a real-time vision-based hand gesture interaction system for VEAST. By using one web camera, we can use our bare hand to interact with VEAST at a certain distance, which proves to be more efficient and direct than mouse. The system is composed of four modules: initialization, hand gesture recognition, interaction control and system settings. The hand gesture recognition method is based on codebook (CB) background modeling and open finger counting. Firstly, we build a background model with CB algorithm. Then, we segment the hand region by detecting skin color regions with “elliptical boundary model” in CbCr flat of YCbCr color space. Open finger which is used as a key feature of gesture can be tracked by an improved curvature-based method. Based on the method, we define nine gestures for interaction control of VEAST. Finally, we design a test to demonstrate effectiveness of our system.

Objective The aim of the present study was to evaluate the finger counting method and compare its performance with four commonly used age-based weight estimation formulae in children aged 1–9 years presenting to the ED in Hong Kong. Methods A cross-sectional, observational study of children aged 1–9 years who presented to the ED of a tertiary referral hospital in Hong Kong over a 6 month period was conducted. Actual weight was compared with estimated weight using the finger counting method and four commonly used age-based weight estimation formulae. Bland–Altman analysis was performed to evaluate the degree of agreement in which the mean percentage difference (MPD) and 95% limits of agreement (LOA) were calculated. Root mean squared error (RMSE) and proportions of weight estimates within 10%, 15% and 20% of actual weight were determined. Results A total of 4178 children were included. The finger counting method was the most accurate method (MPD 0.1%; 95% LOA −34.0% to 34.2%). The original Advanced Paediatric Life Support (APLS) formula (MPD −7.0%; 95% LOA −38.4% to 24.3%) and the updated APLS formula (MPD −0.4%; 95% LOA −38.5% to 37.8%) underestimated weight whereas the Luscombe formula (MPD 7.2%; 95% LOA −31.8% to 46.2%) and the Best Guess formula (MPD 10.6%; 95% LOA −27.3% to 48.4%) overestimated weight. The finger counting method had smallest RMSE of 4.06 kg and estimated the largest proportion of children within 10%, 15% and 20% of actual weight. Conclusion The finger counting method outperforms the commonly used age-based weight estimation formulae in children aged 1–9 years presenting to the ED in Hong Kong.

In recent years, Sign language is an important research problem for communicating with hearing impaired people without the help of interpreter. Hand gesture is one of the methods used in sign language which is most commonly used by deaf and dumb people to communicate with each other or with normal people. The proposed algorithm aims at developing real time image processing based system for hand gesture recognition on personal computer with an USB web cam. This paper proposes a method to detect and recognize the static image of Indian Sign Language numbering system from zero to nine. The method is based on counting the open fingers in the static images. The proposed algorithm for gesture recognition is based on boundary tracing and finger tip detection and also deals with images of bare hands, which allows the signer to interact with the system in a natural way. The proposed algorithm is first detect and segments the hand region from the real time captured images. Then using the proposed methodology, it locate the fingers and classifies the gesture. Further the system convert Indian signs into text and then speech using an audio file stored on PC. The algorithm is size invariant but it is orientation dependent. The proposed system is implemented using OpenCV. General Terms Gesture Recognition, Active finger counting.

Recent work in numerical cognition has shown-that number magnitude is not entirely abstract, and at least partly rooted in embodied and situated experiences, including finger-counting. The current study extends previous cross-cultural research to address within-culture individual differences in finger counting habits. Results indicated that Canadian participants demonstrated an additional cognitive load when comparing numbers that require more than one hand to represent, and this pattern of performance is further modulated by whether they typically start counting on their left hand or their right hand. Chinese students typically count on only one hand and so show no such effect, except for an increase in errors, similar to that seen in Canadians, for those whom self-identify as predominantly two-hand counters. Results suggest that the impact of finger counting habits extend beyond cultural experience and concord in predictable ways with differences in number magnitude processing for specific number-digits. We conclude that symbolic number magnitude processing is partially rooted in learned finger-counting habits, consistent with a motor simulation account of embodied numeracy and that argument is supported by both cross-cultural and within-culture differences in finger-counting habits.

A strong link between bodily activity and number processing has been established in recent years. Although numerous observations indicate that adults use finger counting (FC) in various contexts of everyday life for different purposes, existing knowledge of FC routines and their use is still limited. In particular, it remains unknown how stable the (default) FC habits are over time and how flexible they can be. To investigate these questions, 380 Polish participants completed a questionnaire on their FC routines, the stability of these routines, and the context of FC usage, preceded by the request to count on their fingers from 1 to 10. Next, the test–retest stability of FC habits was examined in 84 participants 2 months following the first session. To the best of our knowledge, such a study design has been adopted for the first time. The results indicate that default FC routines of the majority of participants (75%) are relatively stable over time. At the same time, FC routines can flexibly adapt according to the situation (e.g., when holding an object). As regards prevalence, almost all participants, in line with previous findings on Western individuals, declared starting from the closed palm and extending consecutive fingers. Furthermore, we observed relations between FC preferences and handedness (more left-handers start from the left hand) and that actual finger use is still widespread in healthy adults for a variety of activities (the most prevalent uses of FC are listing elements, presenting arguments and plans, and calendar calculations). In sum, the results show the practical relevance of FC in adulthood, the relative stability of preferences over time along with flexible adaptation to a current situation, as well as an association of FC routines with handedness. Taken together our results suggest that FC is the phenomenon, which is moderated or mediated by multiple embodied factors.

The first steps in numerical cognition are usually done in conjunction with fingers. Following the assumption that abstract concepts stay associated with the sensory-motor information that was present during their acquisition and consolidation, mental number representations should always be associated with the respective finger counting components. We tested whether finger movements that imply finger counting actually prime the corresponding number concepts in adults. All participants counted number 1 with their thumb and incremented sequentially to number 5 with their pinky. In the experiment, participants sequentially and repeatedly pressed five buttons from thumb to pinky. Each button press triggered the visual presentation of a random number between 1 and 5 that had to be named aloud, resulting in 20% counting-congruent and 80% counting-incongruent finger-number mappings. Average naming latencies were significantly shorter for congruent than incongruent finger-number combinations. Furthermore, there was a distance effect where primes partly co-activated numerically close target numbers and with decreasing priming for more distant prime-target pairs. Overall, these results provide further evidence that number representations are strongly associated with finger counting experience, making fingers an effective tool for number comprehension.

Introducción: Cuando se enseña a sumar a los niños de primaria se les permite, de forma generalizada, el usar sus dedos como herramienta para contra. Así, algunos de ellos continúan utilizando los dedos para contar mientras que otros abandonan este hábito más tarde. El alumnado con el hábito de contar con los dedos tienen dificultades cuando los dedos no son suficientes para realizar cálculos matemáticos. El propósito de este estudio experimental es prevenir que los estudiantes utilicen los dedos para contar así como facilitar que estudiantes que ya tienen este hábito puedan abandonarlo.Método: Dado que el interés del investigador fue comparar las diferencias entre estudiantes, en las puntuaciones pre y post test, del grupo experimental y grupo control que habían recibido diferente formación, se utilizó un diseño pretest-postest con grupo estático. En cada grupo había 33 estudiantes mayoritariamente de 7 años de edad. Durante dos semestres académicos, el grupo experimental recibió procedimientos de remediación mientras que el grupo control recibió la instrucción tradicional para el aprendizaje del conteo.Resultados: Los resultados muestran que los estudiantes del grupo experimental tuvieron más éxito sin usar los dedos en cálculos básicos debido al programa implementado en este grupo.Discusión y conclusiones: Creemos que se pueden conseguir mejores resultados en relación con la mejora de las habilidades de conteo de los estudiantes si los contenidos del programa remediativo se extienden y se proporciona un ambiente más apropiado para la aplicación del programa.

This paper presents an embodied model for recognition of handwritten digits in a cognitive developmental robot scenario. Inspired by neuro-psychological data, the model integrates three modules: a stacked auto-encoder network to process the visual information, a feedforward neural controller for the fingers, and a generalized regression network that associates number digits to finger configurations. Results from developmental learning experiments show an improvement in the digits' recognition rate thanks to the inclusion of the robot fingers in the training especially in its early stages (epochs) or with a low number of examples. This behaviour can be linked to that observed in psychological studies with children, who seem to benefit of finger counting only in the initial stage of mathematical learning. These results suggest the potential of the embodied approach to favour the creation of a psychologically plausible developmental model for mathematical cognition in robots and to support the creation of more complex models of human-like behaviours.

Background Mathematicians and scientists have struggled to adequately describe the ultimate foundations of mathematics. Nobel laureates Albert Einstein and Eugene Wigner were perplexed by this issue, with Wigner concluding that the workability of mathematics in the real world is a mystery we cannot explain. In response to this classic enigma, the major purpose of this article is to provide a theoretical model of the ultimate origin of mathematics and “number sense” (as defined by S. Dehaene) that is proposed to involve the learning of inverse dynamics models through the collaboration of the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex (but prominently cerebellum-driven). This model is based upon (1) the modern definition of mathematics as the “science of patterns,” (2) cerebellar sequence (pattern) detection, and (3) findings that the manipulation of numbers is automated in the cerebellum. This cerebro-cerebellar approach does not necessarily conflict with mathematics or number sense models that focus on brain functions associated with especially the intraparietal sulcus region of the cerebral cortex. A direct corollary purpose of this article is to offer a cerebellar inner speech explanation for difficulty in developing “number sense” in developmental dyscalculia. Results It is argued that during infancy the cerebellum learns (1) a first tier of internal models for a primitive physics that constitutes the foundations of visual-spatial working memory, and (2) a second (and more abstract) tier of internal models based on (1) that learns “number” and relationships among dimensions across the primitive physics of the first tier. Within this context it is further argued that difficulty in the early development of the second tier of abstraction (and “number sense”) is based on the more demanding attentional requirements imposed on cerebellar inner speech executive control during the learning of cerebellar inverse dynamics models. Finally, it is argued that finger counting improves (does not originate) “number sense” by extending focus of attention in executive control of silent cerebellar inner speech. Discussion It is suggested that (1) the origin of mathematics has historically been an enigma only because it is learned below the level of conscious awareness in cerebellar internal models, (2) understandings of the development of “number sense” and developmental dyscalculia can be advanced by first understanding the ultimate foundations of number and mathematics do not simply originate in the cerebral cortex, but rather in cerebro-cerebellar collaboration (predominately driven by the cerebellum). Conclusion It is concluded that difficulty with “number sense” results from the extended demands on executive control in learning inverse dynamics models associated with cerebellar inner speech related to the second tier of abstraction (numbers) of the infant’s primitive physics.

The direction of object enumeration reflects children's enculturation but previous work on the development of such spatial preferences has been inconsistent. Therefore, we documented directional preferences in finger counting, object counting, and picture naming for children (4 groups from 3 to 6 years, N = 104) and adults (N = 56). We found a right-side preference for finger counting in 3- to 6-year-olds and a left-side preference for counting objects and naming pictures by 6 years of age. Children were consistent in their special preferences when comparing object counting and picture naming, but not in other task pairings. Finally, spatial preferences were not related to cardinality comprehension. These results, together with other recent work, suggest a gradual development of spatial-numerical associations from early non-directional mappings into culturally constrained directional mappings.

The directionality of finger counting (i.e., from left to right or right to left) is supposed to compete with the orientation of the mental number line in determining number mental representations. Indeed, Western individuals who count on their fingers from right to left present a weaker SNARC effect than do individuals for whom the directionality of counting is the same as the mental number line. Observations of natural behavior should be the preferred methodology for classifying individuals according to their counting habits. Yet, to perform such classification, researchers usually rely on questionnaires or reports of imagined behaviors. However, we show in a series of three experiments that, on average, 26 % of a sample of adults reported the opposite behavior from the one they actually implemented spontaneously when tested with an original ecological task. In a fourth experiment, this new task proved reliable, using a test–retest method. These results suggest that future studies about counting habits could benefit from the use of more ecological and functional tasks, rather than depending on noncontextualized questionnaires.

In many cultures, one of the earliest representations of number to be learned is a finger-counting system. Although most children stop using their fingers to count as they grow more confident with number, traces of this system can still be seen in adulthood. For example, an individual's finger-counting habits appear to affect the ways in which numbers are implicitly associated with certain areas of space, as inferred from the spatial–numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect. In this study, we questioned the finger-counting habits of 98 participants who make explicit, idiosyncratic associations between number and space, known as number-space synaesthesia. Unexpectedly, neither handedness nor finger-counting direction (left-to-right or right-to-left) was associated with the relative positions of 1 and 10 in an individual's number-space synaesthesia. This lack of association between finger-counting styles and number-space synaesthesia layout may result from habitual use of synaesthetic space rather than fingers when learning to count; we offer some testable hypotheses that could assess whether this is the case.

Natural Interface with Computer using the intelligent approaches is the need of Human Computer Interaction (HCI)applications. In this paper, three techniques were proposed and experimented for interaction with Desktop/Laptop with static hand gesture. All these techniques were using real time approach with different feature descriptors such as Fourier Descriptor(FD),7 Hu moments, Convex Hull and Finger Detection. Real time Recognition efficiency was calculated with respect to recognition time for FD and 7 Hu moments. The 300 samples were trained and stored into database for recognition. For unknown user average recognition time was required 1.7 sec using FD as a feature and 4.6 sec using 7 Hu moments and recognition efficiency was achieved 96% and 98% using 7 Hu and FD respectively. In the second technique New Finger detection algorithm was developed and experimented with Hand tracking system(HTS). In this approach, system was working in dynamic background but gives better result in static background. In the third approach, 3-D Kinect camera was used where hand segmentation was achieved using depth image and finger detection were calculated using Convex Hull. In this approach hand segmentation became easier than first two techniques. With all these approaches feature extraction using 7 Hu and FD can be extend for any other HCI application including sign language recognition. Finger counting algorithm can be combined with other descriptor in complex hand sign as a feature. Currently system is working on static hand gestures, further it will be extended to dynamic hand gesture recognition for Indian sign language interpretation.

In this paper, the authors describe an online tool with which to convert and thus quantify count finger measurements of visual acuity into Snellen equivalents. It is hoped that this tool allows for the re-interpretation of retrospectively collected data that provide visual acuity in terms of qualitative count finger measurements.

Theories of embodied cognition emphasize the importance of sensorimotor schemas linked to external world experience for representing conceptual knowledge. Accordingly, some researchers have proposed that the spatial representation of numerical and non-numerical sequences relies on visuomotor routines, like reading habit and finger counting. There is a growing interest in how these two routines contribute to the spatial representation of ordinal sequences, although no investigation has so far directly compared them. The present study aims to investigate how these routines contribute to represent ordinal information in space. To address this issue, bilingual participants reading either from left-to-right or right-to-left were required to map ordinal information to all fingers of their right dominant hand. Critically, we manipulated both the direction of the mapping and the language of the verbal information. More specifically, a finger-mapping compatibility task was adopted in three experiments to explore the spatial representation of numerical (digit numbers and number words) and non-numerical (days of the week, presented in Hebrew and in English) sequences. Results showed that numerical information was preferentially mapped according to participants' finger counting habits, regardless of hand posture (prone and supine), number notation and reading habit. However, for non-numerical ordinal sequences, reading and finger counting directions both contributed to determine a preferential spatial mapping. These findings indicate that abstract knowledge representation relies on multiple over-trained visuomotor routines. More generally, these results highlight the capacity of our cognitive system to flexibly represent abstract ordered information, by relying on different directional experiences (finger counting, reading direction) depending on the stimuli and on the task at hand.

The embodied cognition framework suggests that neural systems for perception and action are engaged during higher cognitive processes. In an event-related fMRI study, we tested this claim for the abstract domain of numerical symbol processing: is the human cortical motor system part of the representation of numbers, and is organization of numerical knowledge influenced by individual finger counting habits? Developmental studies suggest a link between numerals and finger counting habits due to the acquisition of numerical skills through finger counting in childhood. In the present study, digits 1 to 9 and the corresponding number words were presented visually to adults with different finger counting habits, i.e. left- and right-starters who reported that they usually start counting small numbers with their left and right hand, respectively. Despite the absence of overt hand movements, the hemisphere contralateral to the hand used for counting small numbers was activated when small numbers were presented. The correspondence between finger counting habits and hemispheric motor activation is consistent with an intrinsic functional link between finger counting and number processing., Highlights ►Individual finger counting habits modulate motor cortex activation to numbers. ►Small digits activate motor areas contralateral to the hand used in finger counting. ►Number processing is grounded in individual experience related to finger counting. ►Abstract symbol processing is embodied in perceptual-motor brain networks.

Through a discussion of a novel design concept for an embodied currency, this paper inquires into gesture and number. In so doing, it underscores the importance of attending to the phenomenological character of number and money. It speculates on the creation of an embodied currency lived in and through community. Copyright © 2010 SAGE Publications.

In this paper, we present a universal remote control system based on computer vision. The method is composed of two stages of detecting visual evidences. Motion and skin color information is utilized to detect waving hands requesting control commands. Upon the request, the camera is controlled to zoom in on local region of the hand. The number of open fingers is counted by the shape analysis on the segmented hand region image. Control command is issued when a predetermined sequence of gesture state transition is produced. Experimental results show that the shape of open fingers exhibits strong features for determining correct gesture states. The use of stable features on consecutive frames yields robust and accurate performance regardless of operating conditions.

Recent findings in neuroscience challenge the view that the motor system is exclusively dedicated to the control of actions, and it has been suggested that it may contribute critically to conceptual processes such as those involved in language and number representation. The aim of this review is to address this issue by illustrating some interactions between the motor system and the processing of words and numbers. First, we detail functional brain imaging studies suggesting that motor circuits may be recruited to represent the meaning of action-related words. Second, we summarize a series of experiments demonstrating some interference between the size of grip used to grasp objects and the magnitude processing of words or numbers. Third, we report data suggestive of a common representation of numbers and finger movements in the adult brain, a possible trace of the finger-counting strategies used in childhood. Altogether, these studies indicate that the motor system interacts with several aspects of word and number representations. Future research should determine whether these findings reflect a causal role of the motor system in the organization of semantic knowledge.

The finding that number processing activates a cortical network partly overlapping that recruited for hand movements has renewed interest in the relationship between number and finger representations. Further evidence about a possible link between fingers and numbers comes from developmental studies showing that finger movements play a crucial role in learning counting. However, increased activity in hand motor circuits during counting may unveil unspecific processes, such as shifting attention, reciting number names, or matching items with a number name. To address this issue, we used transcranial magnetic stimulation to measure changes in corticospinal (CS) excitability during a counting task performed silently and using either numbers or letters of the alphabet to enumerate items. We found an increased CS excitability of hand muscles during the counting task, irrespective of the use of numbers or letters, whereas it was unchanged in arm and foot muscles. Control tasks allowed us to rule out a possible influence of attention allocation or covert speech on CS excitability increase of hand muscles during counting. The present results support a specific involvement of hand motor circuits in counting because no CS changes were found in arm and foot muscles during the same task. However, the contribution of hand motor areas is not exclusively related to number processing because an increase in CS excitability was also found when letters were used to enumerate items. This finding suggests that hand motor circuits are involved whenever items have to be put in correspondence with the elements of any ordered series.

International audience; The goal of the present study was to test whether there is a relationship between manual preference and hand-digit mapping in 369 French adults with similar numbers of right- and left-handers. Manual laterality was evaluated with the finger tapping test to evaluate hand motor asymmetry, and the Edinburgh handedness inventory was used to assess manual preference strength (MPS) and direction. Participants were asked to spontaneously "count on their fingers from 1 to 10" without indications concerning the hand(s) to be used. The results indicated that both MPS and hand motor asymmetry affect the hand-starting preference for counting. Left-handers with a strong left-hand preference (sLH) or left-hand motor asymmetry largely started to count with their left hand (left-starter), while right-handers with a strong right-hand preference (sRH) or right-hand motor asymmetry largely started to count with their right hand (right-starter). Notably, individuals with weak MPS did not show a hand-starting preference. These findings demonstrated that manual laterality contributes to finger counting directionality. Lastly, the results showed a higher proportion of sLH left-starter individuals compared with sRH right-starters, indicating an asymmetric bias of MPS on hand-starting preference. We hypothesize that the higher proportion of sLH left-starters could be explained by the congruence between left-to-right hand-digit mapping and left-to-right mental number line representation that has been largely reported in the literature. Taken together, these results indicate that finger-counting habits integrate biological and cultural information.

The study of spatial-numerical associations (SNAs) is an active research project that was triggered by a landmark publication reporting several simple reaction time experiments: Adults classified visually presented numbers according to their parity by using left and right response keys (Dehaene et al., 1993). The main finding was that small numbers, such as 1 or 2, were classified faster on the left side and larger numbers, such as 8 or 9, were classified faster on the right side. This specific instance of a SNA has been replicated and extended in numerous studies (recent review by Fischer and Shaki, 2014). The original interpretation of the effect assumed a “spill-over” from reading habits into the number domain but subsequent work has pushed back the time line to preschoolers, infants, and even neonates (for recent review, see Patro et al., 2014). Our own work (e.g., Shaki et al., 2009; Fischer and Shaki, 2015) confirmed that reading habits contribute to the direction and strength of SNAs but has also indicated that they are not the only and not even the strongest determinant (e.g., Fischer et al., 2010). In the following paragraphs we propose a processing principle for SNAs and describe two successive steps by which the mapping of numbers onto space might occur. Our proposed processing principle is that spatial mapping is an integral part of semantic number processing. This is evident from the ubiquity of SNAs: They have been reported with various stimulus formats, in many different tasks, and while studying a wide range of responses (for recent review, see Fischer and Shaki, 2014). SNAs modulate the cortical region underlying semantic number processing (i.e., bilateral hIPS; Cutini et al., 2012). Moreover, the association between numbers and space is bi-directional: numerical magnitude can serve as a spatial cue and vice versa (Stoianov et al., 2008; Shaki and Fischer, 2014a). Most studies of SNAs have used centrally presented numbers in combination with spatial responses, which may have encouraged participants to use spatial number mapping strategies (Fischer, 2006). However, today it is clear that the very appearance of numerical stimuli is enough for SNAs to appear, even when removing, in healthy adults (cf. Zorzi et al., 2002), spatial features from both stimuli and responses (Fischer and Shaki, 2015; Ranzini et al., 2015). Evidence for such a purely conceptual link between numbers and space was even found in Hebrew speakers, thus requiring correction of our earlier claim of the need for consistency of directional processing habits across stimulus domains (Shaki et al., 2009; Shaki and Fischer, 2012, 2014b). We note that our present proposal leaves open the issue of the origin(s) of SNAs, be they a congenital result of hemispheric specializations, or acquired by culturally shaped spatial habits such as reading or finger counting (Fischer, 2008; Lindemann et al., 2011; Domahs et al., 2012; Fischer and Shaki, 2015; Rugani et al., 2015a,b). Assuming that processing number meaning is obligatorily accompanied by mapping it onto a spatial continuum, two issues remain to be addressed to account for a given SNA in a particular setting: The selection of the appropriate spatial dimension, and the directionality of mapping numbers along that dimension. We now present an idea of how these two steps are taken and describe recent evidence in support of this proposal. First, the spatial dimension selected for mapping of numbers reflects the stimulus and response features of the current task. When lateralized response keys are provided to participants to measure the speed of their judgments, then most participants will align their number representations along the dimension indicated by these keys, be it horizontal, vertical, or radial. This is what the bulk of the literature has documented (as recently reviewed by Fischer and Shaki, 2014). In the absence of such response keys, when responses to numbers are required by making spatially directional arm, head, eye or whole-body movements, then the major directions or endpoints of those movements define the mapping dimension, again either using the horizontal (Fischer, 2003; Fischer et al., 2004; Loetscher et al., 2008; Shaki and Fischer, 2014a) or vertical dimension (Schwarz and Keus, 2004; Winter and Matlock, 2013). When spatially distinct responses to the numbers are required but no response dimension is prescribed, the resulting mapping of numbers onto space will be more varied across participants (Fischer and Campens, 2008). Finally, even when no spatially distinct responses are required, as for example in a simple detection task, the spatial mapping of centrally presented numbers will still emerge through lateralization of other stimuli, such as visually presented cues (Fischer et al., 2003; for a recent update, see Fischer and Knops, 2014). Finally, once a dimension for the spatial mapping of numbers has been selected by the participant, their distribution along this dimension still remains to be decided. For this second step, we propose that the orientation of the SNA is influenced by spatial experience. This rule underlines the manifold of possible influences on the SNARC which are only beginning to be documented and studied. Living in a three-dimensional world, we are differentially sensitive to horizontal vs. vertical space. For example, as a result of the embodied nature of cognition, vertical distinctions are most salient and horizontal ones least salient (Fischer and Brugger, 2011), leading to faster acquisition of, and discrimination along, the vertical than the horizontal dimension (Franklin and Tversky, 1990). Similarly, the increasing strength of SNAs with age (Wood et al., 2008; Hoffmann et al., 2014) indicates that they may reflect accumulated spatial habits/experiences during life. An example are reading habits (see the contribution of Nuerk et al., 2015 to this research topic for a detailed description of mechanisms). Importantly, such life-long experiences are less powerful in determining the directionality of a SNAs compared to more recent experiences with numbers, as demonstrated in emerging training studies (e.g., Fischer, 2012) and by rapid alternations of SNAs between successive trials (Fischer et al., 2009). In summary, the proposed two successive steps seem to capture a wide range of observations pertaining to the ubiquity of SNAs that have recently re-invigorated research into numerical cognition. We hope that the present proposal will guide further interest in the design of novel studies that aim to test specific predictions about the origin and strength of SNAs. For example, how can we identify the sequential nature of the mapping process? How shall we weight the contributions of previous experiences? Clearly, such questions identify numerical cognition as a convenient test-bed for the study of fundamental principles of cognition generally.

Numerical cognition has long been considered the perfect example of abstract information processing. Nevertheless, there is accumulating evidence in recent years suggesting that the representation of number magnitude may not be entirely abstract but might present a specific case of embodied cognition rooted in the sensory and bodily experiences of early finger counting and calculating. However, so far none of the existing models of numerical development considers the influence of finger-based representations. Therefore, we make first suggestions on (i) how finger-based representations may be integrated into a current model of numerical development and (ii) how they might corroborate the acquisition of basic numerical competencies at different development levels.

Fischer et al. (2003) discovered that non-informative central numerical cues induce attention shifts: In accordance with a spatially organized mental number line, small, and large numbers facilitated detection of targets in the left and right visual hemifields, respectively. Zanolie and Pecher (2014, henceforth Z&P) failed to observe this pattern in 5 of 6 replication attempts and concluded that “the mental number line is not activated automatically but at best only when it is contextually relevant.” We briefly describe the current understanding of spatial-numerical associations (SNAs) before identifying aspects of Z&P's study that might explain their failure to replicate the attentional cueing effect of numbers. In addition to two successful replications acknowledged by Z&P (and a replication within the original paper), number-induced attentional biases were also found by several other labs (for references, see Fischer and Shaki, 2014, p. 1465). The effect has been extended to neuroscientific measures, such as modulations of neural activity in occipital cortex as measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (Goffaux et al., 2014), or increased P1 and P3 amplitudes in EEG (Sallilas et al., 2008), and it is also reflected in attention-related ERP-components EDAN and ADAN (Ranzini et al., 2009) Recent evidence suggests that these ERP-correlates of number-induced attentional cueing are not restricted to mere detection tasks but generalize to color discrimination (Schuller et al., 2014). Moreover, number-induced attention shifts in EEG signatures even without behavioral bias, as in the Ranzini et al. (2009) study, can be interpreted as strong replications and not a problem. Attentional effects of SNAs have been documented in children (e.g., van Galen and Reitsma, 2008), adults (Dodd, 2011), and synesthetes (Jarick et al., 2009). Finally, SNA-driven attentional biases have recently been generalized into mental arithmetic (Masson and Pesenti, 2014). The hypothesis that number magnitude biases spatial attention is attractive because this converges with neuroscience facts to explain behavior. For example, healthy adults bisect digit strings made of small, or large numbers to the left or right of center, respectively (Fischer, 2001; Calabria and Rossetti, 2005). Bisection tasks are, in turn, a standard assessment procedure for parietal lobe function (Bonato et al., 2008). Areas in posterior superior parietal cortex (PSPC) are involved in shifting spatial attention and planning saccade targets. PSPC is densely interconnected with the more anteriorly located horizontal aspect of the intraparietal sulcus (hIPS) which processes numerical magnitudes (Nieder and Dehaene, 2009; Eger et al., 2014). Basic mathematical operations may be neurally implemented via functional interactions between hIPS and PSPC and their connection to left perisylvian language areas as well as frontal cortex (Hubbard et al., 2005). Knops et al. (2009) applied machine learning algorithms to the BOLD-activity of PSPC to classify left from right saccades. Crucially, without further training this classifier successfully distinguished mental addition and subtraction, equating addition and subtraction with rightward and leftward saccades, respectively. These results all substantiate the functional role of attention shifts in numerical cognition due to SNAs. Given these replications, extensions, and conceptual convergence, why did ZP such responses were not required in the original study. Response preparation was then possible as soon as digits were identified, thus inducing systematic attention shifts for left and right responses that could be either congruent or incongruent with the magnitude-related bias (e.g., Eimer et al., 2005). Although reporting digits after a trial can improve the chance of finding SNAs (e.g., Casarotti et al., 2007), averaging across the manual response conditions dilutes effects of digit presentation on attention allocation. This concern pertains, however, only to 4 of the 6 experiments. Thus, there must be other reasons for why Z&P failed to replicate the original results. Relatively large samples, as tested by ZP Fischer and Shaki, 2014). For example, finger counting is more left-associated in Canada compared to Holland (where the original and replication studies were conducted; Lindemann and Tira, 2011), and this in turn supports SNAs (Fischer, 2008). Similarly, directional reading habits modulate SNAs (Shaki et al., 2009; Shaki and Fischer, 2014). Although not reported in the original study or by Z&P, finger counting preferences and reading habits of participants should be assessed in future studies in light of these recent insights. Recent evidence and computational theories of selective attention suggest that the salience of a given object in the visual scene relies on the combination of both bottom-up, physical stimulus properties (e.g., luminance or contrast) and its current top-down, strategic relevance for the observer's goals (Fecteau and Munoz, 2006). Hence, context determines the extent of attentional cueing effects, and may likewise determine SNAs. By integrating stimulus-driven conspicuity and strategic relevance the recently proposed idea of priority maps may provide an attractive and coherent framework to investigate the scope and limits of attentional cueing in numerical cognition (Knops et al., 2014). In a similar vein, more evidence is required to elucidate to what extent other well-established attentional mechanisms, such as orienting (benefit due to valid cueing) vs. re-orienting (costs of invalid cueing), differentially contribute to SNAs. For example, in 7–8-year-old children the numerical over- and underestimation during approximate calculation correlates with the costs of invalid attentional cueing (re-orienting) but not with the benefit of valid cueing (orienting) in a Posner paradigm (Knops et al., 2013). The question whether space is fundamental to number meaning or context-dependent is widely debated (for review see Fischer and Shaki, 2014). We conclude that attentional cueing through number magnitude is indeed subtle and context-dependent but remains a valuable additional tool for investigating conceptual knowledge.

The young math learner must make the transition from a concrete number situation, such as that of counting objects (fingers often being the most readily available), to that of using a written symbolic form that stands for the quantities the sets of objects come to represent. This challenging process is often coupled to that of learning a verbal number system that is not always transparent to children. A number of theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain aspects of how this transition takes place in cognitive development. The results obtained with the model presented here, show that a symbol grounding approach can be used to implement aspects of this transition in a cognitive robot. In the current extended version, the model develops finger and word representations, through the use of finger counting and verbal counting strategies, together with the visual representations of learned number symbols, which it uses to perform basic arithmetic operations. In the final training phases, the model is able to do this using only the number symbols as addends. We consider this an example of symbolic grounding, in that through the direct sensory experience with the body (finger counting), a category of linguistic symbol is learned (number words), and both types of representations subsequently serve to ground higher level (numerical) symbols, which are later used exclusively to perform the arithmetic operations.

Interactions between fingers and numbers have been reported in the existing literature on numerical cognition. The aim of the present research was to test whether hand interference movements might have an impact on children performance in counting and basic arithmetic problem solving. In Experiment 1, 5-year-old children had to perform both a one-target and a two-target counting task in three different conditions: with no constraints, while making interfering hand movements or while making interfering foot movements. In Experiment 2, first and fourth graders were required to perform addition problems under the same control and sensori-motor interfering conditions. In both tasks, the hand movements caused more disruption than the foot movements, suggesting that finger-counting plays a functional role in the development of counting and arithmetic.

Counting using one's fingers is a potentially intuitive way to enumerate a list of items and lends itself naturally to gesture-based menu systems. In this paper, we present the results of the first comprehensive study on Finger-Count menus to investigate its usefulness as a viable option for 3D menu selection tasks. Our study compares 3D gesture-based finger counting (Finger Count menus) with two gesture-based menu selection techniques (Hand-n-Hold, Thumbs-Up), derived from existing motion-controlled video game menu selection strategies, as well as 3D Marking menus. We examined selection time, selection accuracy and user preference for all techniques. We also examined the impact of different spatial layouts for menu items and different menu depths. Our results indicate that Finger-Count menus are significantly faster than the other menu techniques we tested and are the most liked by participants. Additionally, we found that while Finger-Count menus and 3D Marking menus have similar selection accuracy, Finger-Count menus are almost twice as fast compared to 3D Marking menus.

Evidence from developmental as well as neuroscientific studies suggest that finger counting activity plays an important role in the acquisition of numerical skills in children. It has been claimed that this skill helps in building motor-based representations of number that continue to influence number processing well into adulthood, facilitating the emergence of number concepts from sensorimotor experience through a bottom-up process. The act of counting also involves the acquisition and use of a verbal number system of which number words are the basic building blocks. Using a Cognitive Developmental Robotics paradigm we present results of a modeling experiment on whether finger counting and the association of number words (or tags) to fingers, could serve to bootstrap the representation of number in a cognitive robot, enabling it to perform basic numerical operations such as addition. The cognitive architecture of the robot is based on artificial neural networks, which enable the robot to learn both sensorimotor skills (finger counting) and linguistic skills (using number words). The results obtained in our experiments show that learning the number words in sequence along with finger configurations helps the fast building of the initial representation of number in the robot. Number knowledge, is instead, not as efficiently developed when number words are learned out of sequence without finger counting. Furthermore, the internal representations of the finger configurations themselves, developed by the robot as a result of the experiments, sustain the execution of basic arithmetic operations, something consistent with evidence coming from developmental research with children. The model and experiments demonstrate the importance of sensorimotor skill learning in robots for the acquisition of abstract knowledge such as numbers.

Although many three-dimensional pointing gesture recognition methods have been proposed, the problem of self-occlusion has not been considered. Furthermore, because almost all pointing gesture recognition methods use a wide-angle camera, additional sensors or cameras are required to concurrently perform finger gesture recognition. In this paper, we propose a method for performing both pointing gesture and finger gesture recognition for large display environments, using a single Kinect device and a skeleton tracking model. By considering self-occlusion, a compensation technique can be performed on the user’s detected shoulder position when a hand occludes the shoulder. In addition, we propose a technique to facilitate finger counting gesture recognition, based on the depth image of the hand position. In this technique, the depth image is extracted from the end of the pointing vector. By using exception handling for self-occlusions, experimental results indicate that the pointing accuracy of a specific reference position was significantly improved. The average root mean square error was approximately 13 pixels for a 1920 × 1080 pixels screen resolution. Moreover, the finger counting gesture recognition accuracy was 98.3%.