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We investigate Titan's low-latitude and midlatitude surface using spectro-imaging near-infrared data from Cassini/Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer. We use a radiative transfer code to first evaluate atmospheric contributions and then extract the haze and the surface albedo values of major geomorphological units identified in Cassini Synthetic Aperture Radar data, which exhibit quite similar spectral response to the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer data. We have identified three main categories of albedo values and spectral shapes, indicating significant differences in the composition among the various areas. We compare with linear mixtures of three components (water ice, tholin-like, and a dark material) at different grain sizes. Due to the limited spectral information available, we use a simplified model, with which we find that each albedo category of regions of interest can be approximately fitted with simulations composed essentially by one of the three surface candidates. Our fits of the data are overall successful, except in some cases at 0.94, 2.03, and 2.79 μm, indicative of the limitations of our simplistic compositional model and the need for additional components to reproduce Titan's complex surface. Our results show a latitudinal dependence of Titan's surface composition, with water ice being the major constituent at latitudes beyond 30°N and 30°S, while Titan's equatorial region appears to be dominated partly by a tholin-like or by a very dark unknown material. The albedo differences and similarities among the various geomorphological units give insights on the geological processes affecting Titan's surface and, by implication, its interior. We discuss our results in terms of origin and evolution theories. ©2018. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved.

International audience; Cassini RADAR images of Titan's south polar region acquired during southern summer contain lake features which disappear between observations. These features show a tenfold increases in backscatter cross-section between images acquired one year apart, which is inconsistent with common scattering models without invoking temporal variability. The morphologic boundaries are transient, further supporting changes in lake level. These observations are consistent with the exposure of diffusely scattering lakebeds that were previously hidden by an attenuating liquid medium. We use a two-layer model to explain backscatter variations and estimate a drop in liquid depth of approximately 1-m-per-year. On larger scales, we observe shoreline recession between ISS and RADAR images of Ontario Lacus, the largest lake in Titan's south polar region. The recession, occurring between June 2005 and July 2009, is inversely proportional to slopes estimated from altimetric profiles and the exponential decay of near-shore backscatter, consistent with a uniform reduction of 4 ± 1.3 m in lake depth.Of the potential explanations for observed surface changes, we favor evaporation and infiltration. The disappearance of dark features and the recession of Ontario's shoreline represents volatile transport in an active methane-based hydrologic cycle. Observed loss rates are compared and shown to be consistent with available global circulation models. To date, no unambiguous changes in lake level have been observed between repeat images in the north polar region, although further investigation is warranted. These observations constrain volatile flux rates in Titan's hydrologic system and demonstrate that the surface plays an active role in its evolution. Constraining these seasonal changes represents the first step toward our understanding of longer climate cycles that may determine liquid distribution on Titan over orbital time periods.

International audience; Cassini's RADAR instrument acquired a SAR swath over Titan's north polar lakes on May 22, 2012 , providing repeat images of a number of the smaller lakes. Previous coverage of these lakes was obtained on various passes in 2006 and 2007. Among the principal objectives of the Cassini mission is to monitor the liquid in the lakes with the approach of northern summer. Evidence of change in the lakes' levels might consist of shoreline changes, changes in radar backscatter (e.g. as penetration increases or dry spots appear), or combinations of these. We have chosen ten lakes and lake complexes for study, ranging from -4 to -100 km largest dimension. Visual comparison of repeat images is complicated by the dissimilar imaging geometry and (in some cases) resolution, and by SAR speckle. There are ambiguous cases that require further study, but at this writing we cannot identify certain changes. Ambiguous cases will be analyzed by using electromagnetic models, which can also take into account different acquisition geometry. Further analysis will be carried out exploiting electromagnetic scattering models and inversion approaches (e.g., Bayesian) to provide estimate of the lake parameters and any related changes. Parts of the research described in this paper were carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

The first observation of ephemeral hydrocarbon lakes on the surface of Titan was made on May 27, 2009. SAR imagery of the south polar region (63°-58°S, 144°E-153°E) was obtained in 12/2007 (T39) and 05/2009 (T55). A collection of features, whose morphologies match that of previously identified partially-filled lakes, show more than an order of magnitude increase in backscatter cross-section in T55, where the boundaries are no longer visible. This change is inconsistent with common scattering models at the relevant incidence angles of 14° and 37°. If not due to observational effects, the disappearance of these dark features in the intervening 1.5 years represents surface change. Backscatter models that include a diffuse scattering component in addition to a quasi-specular one are required to explain the incidence angle dependence of empty lakes present in both T39 and T55. These scattering models are consistent with both individual empty lakes observed at multiple incidence angles and the collective set of empty lakes observed to date. However, granular lake features observed in T39 with low backscatter forbid a significant diffusive component to explain their returns. Thus, the increase in radar brightness within the study region suggests the exposure of a diffusively scattering lakebed that was previously hidden by an attenuating liquid medium. Among the potential explanations for the surface change, we consider liquid evaporation and infiltration. If infiltration is responsible, a dynamic hydrologic system with a regionally varying phreatic surface is implied. Methane evaporation is a likely explanation, consistent with the current season on Titan. Current GCM estimates suggest that 1 m of methane can be expected to have evaporated between the observations, an amount sufficient to attenuate the diffuse backscatter according to a simple two-layer model. These observations of lake changes constrain volatile fluxes and hence, the evolution of Titan's hydrologic system.

International audience; The Cassini RADAR pass T39 of the south polar region reveals extremely varied and in some cases complex surface morphologies, indicating that a range of geologic processes have operated, and are operating, in the region.

The Cassini Radar flyby of Saturn's moon Titan on 22 July 2006 (T16) provides compelling evidence for the presence of liquid lakes on the surface of Titan. The radar images polewards of 70°N show over 75 circular to irregular radar dark patches from 3 km to over 170 km across, in a region where liquid methane and ethane are expected to be abundant and stable on the surface. Some patches are uniformly dark in appearance, with no measureable echo, while others vary in brightness. We interpret these as lakes based on their very low radar reflectivity and morphological similarities to lakes, including associated channels, location in topographic depressions and multiple shorelines. Lakes appear in a number of apparent states, including fully drained, partially dry and liquid-filled. These northern hemisphere lakes constitute the strongest evidence yet that a condensable-liquid hydrological cycle is active in Titan's surface and atmosphere, in which the lakes are filled through rainfall and/or intersection with the subsurface `liquid methane' table.

A number of volcanic fields and sand dune fields in the western part of North America were studied using aircraft and Seasat synthetic aperture radar images and LANDSAT images. The capability of radars with different characteristics (i.e., frequency, polarization and look angles was assessed to identify and map different volcanic features, lava flows and sand dune types. It was concluded that: (1) volcanic features which have a relatively large topographic expression (i.e., cinder cones, collapse craters, calderas, etc.) are easily identified; (2) lava flows of different ages can be identified, particularly on the L-band images; and (3) sand dunes are clearly observed and their extent and large scale geometric characteristics determined, provided the proper imaging geometry exists.

Mariner 10 occultation measurements have provided evidence of a dense cloud deck in the lower atmosphere of Venus with a peak liquid content of about 1 g m^−3. This, in conjunction with other measurements-such as turbulence, updrafts and the presence of aerosol—seem to favor the possibility of precipitation on Venus. Modeling of droplet growth in the Venusian environment shows that precipitation size drops can be formed over periods of only a few hours, similar to growth rates on Earth. The precipitation region, if it exists, would extend from the cloud base at about 50 km to the 38 km level where most of the droplets will have evaporated. Precipitation regions can be detected with a variety of remote sensing radar and radio techniques.

On a Seasat image (23.5-cm wavelength) of the Durmid Hills in southern California, the San Andreas fault is expressed as a prominent southeast-trending tonal lineament that is bright on the southwest side and dark on the northeast side. Field investigation established that the bright signature corresponds to outcrops of the Borrego Formation, which weathers to a rough surface. The dark signature corresponds to sand and silt deposits of Lake Coahuila which are smooth at the wavelength of the Seasat radar. These signatures and field characteristics agree with calculations of the smooth and rough radar criteria. On Landsat and Skylab images of the Durmid Hills, the Borrego and Lake Coahuila surfaces have similar bright tones and the San Andreas fault is not detectable. On a side-looking airborne radar image (0.86-cm wavelength), both the Borrego and Lake Coahuila surfaces appear rough, which results in bright signatures on both sides of the San Andreas fault. Because of this lack of roughness contrast, the fault cannot be distinguished. The wavelength of the Seasat radar system is well suited for mapping geologic features in the Durmid Hills that are obscure on other remote sensing images.

Optimum threshold conditions for oscillations of transversely bounded distributed-feedback (DFB) lasers are derived and discussed for the case of a fiber guide and diffused guide.