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This study investigates the contribution of external forcings on global and regional ocean wave height change during 1961–2020. Historical significant wave height (Hs) produced for different CMIP6 external forcings and preindustrial control conditions following the Detection and Attribution Model Intercomparison Project (DAMIP) are employed. The internal variability ranges are compared with different external forcing scenario. Statistically significant linear trends in Hs computed over regional ocean basins are found to be mostly associated with anthropogenic forcings: greenhouse gas‐only (GHG) and aerosol‐only (AER) forcing. For Hs, GHG signals are robustly detected and dominant for most of the global ocean, except over North pacific and South Atlantic, where AER signals are dominant. These results are supported by multi‐model analysis for wind speed. The remarkable increase in Hs over the Arctic (22.3%) and Southern (8.2%) Ocean can be attributed to GHG induced sea‐ice depletion and larger effective fetch along with wind speed increase.

Satellite observations of significant wave height (Hs) have recently reached 30 years of continuous record. Is this length sufficient to detect the effect of anthropogenically forced climate change on wave height trends? Wave height decadal variability is influenced by a combination of internal variability and forced variability caused by both anthropogenic and natural forcing. Using a statistical model to derive Hs from sea level pressure field and exploiting ERA-5 reanalysis data as well as 80 members of the Community Earth System Model v2 large ensemble, we show that, over the North Atlantic (NA), altimetry-based Hs trends are mostly caused by internal variability. This suggests that Hs changes computed over the satellite era are not yet controlled by anthropogenic climate change. Starting from 1993, the date of emergence, defined as the date when the forced signal becomes dominant over the internal variability, is later than 2050 for Hs in the NA. Plain Language Summary Satellite observations of significant wave height will soon reach 30 years of continuous record. Changes in significant wave height over this period can either be attributed to both anthropogenic or “natural” climate forcing or to the intrinsic variability of the climate system. In this article, we show that the intrinsic variability effect largely dominates the significant wave height changes in the North Atlantic (NA) over the 30 years of satellite observations. We further estimate that the significant wave height changes associated with anthropogenically forced climate change will become dominant over those due to the intrinsic variability after 2050 in most of the NA region.

Ocean wave measurements are of major importance for a number of applications including climate studies, ship routing, marine engineering, safety at sea, and coastal risk management. Depending on the scales and regions of interest, a variety of data sources may be considered (e.g. in situ data, Voluntary Observing Ship observations, altimeter records, numerical wave models), each one with its own characteristics in terms of sampling frequency, spatial coverage, accuracy, and cost. In order to combine multiple source of wave information (e.g. for data assimilation scheme in numerical weather prediction models), the error characteristics of each measurement system need to be defined. In this study, we use the triple-collocation technique to estimate the random error variance of significant wave heights from a comprehensive collection of collocated in situ, altimeter and model data. The in situ dataset is a selection of 122 platforms provided by the Copernicus Marine Service in situ Thematic Center. The altimeter dataset is the ESA Sea State CCI version1 L2P product. The model dataset is the WW3-LOPS hindcast forced with bias-corrected ERA5 winds and an adjusted T475 parameterization of wave generation and dissipation. Compared to previous similar analyses, the extensive (∼250,000 entries) triple collocation dataset generated for this study provides some new insights on the error variability associated to differences in in situ platforms, satellite missions, sea state conditions, and seasonal variability.

Numerical wave models are generally less accurate in the coastal ocean than offshore. It is generally suspected that a number of factors specific to coastal environments can be blamed for these larger model errors: complex shoreline and topography, relatively short fetches, combination of remote swells and local wind seas, less accurate wind fields, presence of strong currents, bottom friction, etc. These factors generally have strong local variations, making it all the more difficult to adapt a particular model setup from one area to another. Here we investigate a wide range of modeling choices including forcing fields, spectral resolution, and parameterizations of physical processes in a regional model that covers most of the Atlantic and North Sea coasts. The effects of these choices on the model results are analyzed with buoy spectral data and wave parameter time series. Additionally, satellite altimeter data are employed to provide a more complete performance assessment of the modeled wave heights as a function of the distance to the coast and to identify areas where wave propagation is influenced by bottom friction. We show that the accurate propagation of waves from offshore is probably the most important factor on exposed shorelines, while other specific effects can be important locally, including winds, currents, and bottom friction.

Improved understanding of how our coasts will evolve over a range of time scales (years‐decades) is critical for effective and sustainable management of coastal infrastructure. A robust knowledge of the spatial, directional and temporal variability of the inshore wave climate is required to predict future coastal evolution and hence vulnerability. However, the variability of the inshore directional wave climate has received little attention, and an improved understanding could drive development of skillful seasonal or decadal forecasts of coastal response. We examine inshore wave climate at 63 locations throughout the United Kingdom and Ireland (1980–2017) and show that 73% are directionally bimodal. We find that winter‐averaged expressions of six leading atmospheric indices are strongly correlated (r = 0.60–0.87) with both total and directional winter wave power (peak spectral wave direction) at all studied sites. Regional inshore wave climate classification through hierarchical cluster analysis and stepwise multi‐linear regression of directional wave correlations with atmospheric indices defined four spatially coherent regions. We show that combinations of indices have significant skill in predicting directional wave climates (R2 = 0.45–0.8; p<0.05). We demonstrate for the first time the significant explanatory power of leading winter‐averaged atmospheric indices for directional wave climates, and show that leading seasonal forecasts of the NAO skillfully predict wave climate in some regions. Plain Language Summary Understanding the seasonal variability in wave climate around our coasts is fundamental for improving our understanding of how coasts will respond to climate change and sea‐level rise. Recent research has highlighted the importance of wave direction on coastal response. In this study we specifically explore the seasonal variability in wave direction throughout the inshore regions of the United Kingdom and Ireland at 63 locations between 1980 and 2017. W

Numerical wave models are used for a wide range of applications, from the global ocean to coastal scales. Here we report on significant improvements compared to the previous hindcast detailed in Part 2 of the present study by Rascle and Ardhuin (2013). This result was obtained by updating forcing fields, adjusting the spectral discretization and retuning wind wave growth and swell dissipation parameters. Most of the model calibration and performance analysis is done using significant wave heights (Hs) from the recent re-calibrated and denoised satellite altimeter data set provided by the European Space Agency Climate Change Initiative (ESA-CCI), with additional verification using spectral buoy data. We find that, for the year 2011, using wind fields from the recent ERA5 reanalysis provides lower scatter against satellite Hs data compared to historical ECMWF operational analyses, but still yields a low bias on wave heights that can be mitigated by re-scaling wind speeds larger than 20 m/s. Alternative blended wind products can provide more accurate forcing in some regions, but were not retained because of larger errors elsewhere. We use the shape of the probability density function of Hs around 2 m to fine tune the swell dissipation parameterization. The updated model hindcast appears to be generally more accurate than the previous version, and can be more accurate than the ERA5 Hs estimates, in particular in strong current regions and for Hs > 7 m.

Long-term changes of wind-generated ocean waves have important consequences for marine engineering, coastal management, ship routing, and marine spatial planning. It is well-known that the multi-annual variability of wave parameters in the North Atlantic is tightly linked to natural fluctuations of the atmospheric circulation, such as the North Atlantic Oscillation. However, anthropogenic climate change is also expected to influence sea states over the long-term through the modification of atmospheric and ocean circulation and melting of sea ice. Due to the relatively short duration of historical sea state observations and the significant multi-decadal variability in the sea state signal, disentangling the anthropogenic signal from the natural variability is a challenging task. In this article, the literature on inter-annual to multi-decadal variability of sea states in the North Atlantic is reviewed using data from both observations and model reanalysis.

Sea state data are of major importance for climate studies, marine engineering, safety at sea, and coastal management. However, long-term sea state datasets are sparse and not always consistent, and sea state data users still mostly rely on numerical wave models for research and engineering applications. Facing the urgent need for a sea state Climate Data Record, the Global Climate Observing System has listed Sea State as an Essential Climate Variable (ECV), fostering the launch in 2018 of the Sea State Climate Change Initiative (CCI). The CCI is a program of the European Space Agency, whose objective is to realize the full potential of global Earth Observation archives established by ESA and its member states in order to contribute to the ECV database. This paper presents the implementation of the first release of the Sea State CCI dataset, the implementation and benefits of a high-level denoising method, its validation against in-situ measurements and numerical model outputs, and the future developments considered within the Sea State CCI project. The Sea State CCI dataset v1 is freely available on the ESA CCI website (http://cci.esa.int/data) at ftp://anon-ftp.ceda.ac.uk/neodc/esacci/sea_state/data/v1.1_release/. Three products are available: a multi-mission along-track L2P product (https://doi.org/10.5285/f91cd3ee7b6243d5b7d41b9beaf397e1, Piollé et al., 2020a), a daily merged multi mission along-track L3 product (https://doi.org/10.5285/3ef6a5a66e9947d39b356251909dc12b, Piollé et al., 2020b) and a multi-mission monthly gridded L4 product (https://doi.org/10.5285/47140d618dcc40309e1edbca7e773478, Piollé et al., 2020c).

Long‐term changes in ocean surface waves are relevant to society and climate research. Significant wave height climatologies and trends over 1992‐2017 are intercompared in four recent high‐quality global datasets using a consistent methodology. For two products based on satellite altimetry, including one from the European Space Agency Climate Change Initiative for Sea State, regional differences in mean climatology are linked to low and high sea states. Trends from the altimetry products, and two reanalysis and hindcast datasets, show general similarity in spatial variation and magnitude but with major differences in equatorial regions and the Indian Ocean. Discrepancies between altimetry products likely arise from differences in calibration and quality control. However, multi‐decadal observations at two buoy stations also highlight issues with wave buoy data, raising questions about their unqualified use, and more fundamentally about uncertainty in all products. Plain Language Summary Changes to ocean waves over decades and longer are of considerable importance to climate, society and the marine economy. Accurate observations of waves spanning many decades are required to understand long‐term changes, but the challenges and cost of measuring waves worldwide with devices like buoys means that alternatives like Earth‐orbiting satellites become attractive. We compare two recently published global wave products derived from the same satellite observations, with two high quality products from computer simulations, and buoy measurements. Using a consistent methodology, we find important differences between the satellite products, and the simulations, in the reported average global wave conditions, and their evolution in time. The disagreement between the satellite products points to complex differences in the way satellite data are corrected, which raises questions about uncertainty in these products, and more generally, about what is our most reliable long‐term observat

Radar altimeters have been measuring ocean significant wave height for more than three decades, with their data used to record the severity of storms, the mixing of surface waters and the potential threats to offshore structures and low-lying land, and to improve operational wave forecasting. Understanding climate change and long-term planning for enhanced storm and flooding hazards are imposing more stringent requirements on the robustness, precision, and accuracy of the estimates than have hitherto been needed. Taking advantage of novel retracking algorithms, particularly developed for the coastal zone, the present work aims at establishing an objective baseline processing chain for wave height retrieval that can be adapted to all satellite missions. In order to determine the best performing retracking algorithm for both Low Resolution Mode and Delay-Doppler altimetry, an objective assessment is conducted in the framework of the European Space Agency Sea State Climate Change Initiative project. All algorithms process the same Level-1 input dataset covering a time-period of up to two years. As a reference for validation, an ERA5-based hindcast wave model as well as an in-situ buoy dataset from the Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service In Situ Thematic Centre database are used. Five different metrics are evaluated: percentage and types of outliers, level of measurement noise, wave spectral variability, comparison against wave models, and comparison against in-situ data. The metrics are evaluated as a function of the distance to the nearest coast and the sea state. The results of the assessment show that all novel retracking algorithms perform better in the majority of the metrics than the baseline algorithms currently used for operational generation of the products. Nevertheless, the performance of the retrackers strongly differ depending on the coastal proximity and the sea state. Some retrackers show high correlations with the wave models and in-situ da

Surface gravity waves generated by winds are ubiquitous on our oceans and play a primordial role in the dynamics of the ocean–land–atmosphere interfaces. In particular, wind-generated waves cause fluctuations of the sea level at the coast over timescales from a few seconds (individual wave runup) to a few hours (wave-induced setup). These wave-induced processes are of major importance for coastal management as they add up to tides and atmospheric surges during storm events and enhance coastal flooding and erosion. Changes in the atmospheric circulation associated with natural climate cycles or caused by increasing greenhouse gas emissions affect the wave conditions worldwide, which may drive significant changes in the wave-induced coastal hydrodynamics. Since sea-level rise represents a major challenge for sustainable coastal management, particularly in low-lying coastal areas and/or along densely urbanized coastlines, understanding the contribution of wind-generated waves to the long-term budget of coastal sea-level changes is therefore of major importance. In this review, we describe the physical processes by which sea states may affect coastal sea level at several timescales, we present the methods currently used to estimate the wave contribution to coastal sea-level changes, we describe past and future wave climate variability, we discuss the contribution of wave to coastal sea-level changes, and we discuss the limitations and perspectives of this research field.

Wave runup is known to depend on offshore wave conditions and coastal morphology. While most field studies on wave runup have focused on low‐to‐mild‐sloping sandy beaches, runup measurements on steep and irregular rocky cliff profiles are still very scarce. Here we investigate the physical processes controlling wave runup in such environments and the range of applicability of empirical runup formula. This study focuses on the steep rocky cliffs (0.1 < tanβ < 0.4) of Banneg Island, a small island located in the Molène archipelago, Brittany, France, occasionally flooded during extreme water level events. A statistical parameter for extreme runup is derived from the measurements of pressure sensors deployed in the intertidal zone. Deep water wave parameters are used to force a high‐resolution wave model, and nearshore wave parameters and high‐resolution topographic data are analyzed concurrently with runup time series in order to assess the dependence of the runup on hydrodynamic conditions and morphological parameters. The wave runup is shown to be strongly related to the square root of the offshore significant wave height times the offshore wavelength. The measurements also reveal the depth dependence of the runup, which is mainly attributed to the curvature of the foreshore profile. In comparison to empirical relation obtained for a mild‐sloping beach, the present data show a significant reduction in normalized wave runup, that is attributed to enhanced bottom friction over the rocky bottom. Plain Language Summary When waves reach the shores, they travel up and down the beach before being reflected seaward. The maximum vertical excursion of the waterline relative to the still water level, called the wave runup, is a key parameter for the design of coastal structures and the prediction of overtopping volumes during storm events. Most runup studies in natural environments have focused on smooth and mild‐sloping sandy beaches, and empirical formula to predict the wave

A 69-year (1948-2017) numerical weather and wave hindcast is used to investigate the interannual variability and trend of winter wave height along the west coast of Europe. Results show that the winter-mean wave height, variability, and periodicity all increased significantly in the northeast Atlantic over the last seven decades which primarily correlate with changes in the climate indices North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and West Europe Pressure Anomaly (WEPA) affecting atmospheric circulation in the North Atlantic. NAO and WEPA primarily explain the increase in winter-mean wave height and periodicity, respectively, while both WEPA and NAO explain the increase in interannual variability. This increase in trend, variability, and periodicity resulted in more frequent high-energy winters with high NAO and/or WEPA over the last decades. The ability of climate models to predict the winter NAO and WEPA indices a few months ahead will be crucial to anticipate coastal hazards in this region. Plain Language Summary We explore the evolution of winter-mean wave height, variability, and periodicity in the northeast Atlantic over 1949-2017 and the links with the primary climate indices explaining winter wave activity, which is critical from the coastal hazard perspective. The climate indices NAO and WEPA primarily drive the increase in winter-mean wave height and periodicity, respectively, while both WEPA and NAO explain the increase in interannual variability, resulting in more frequent high-energy winters over the last seven decades. Extreme winter-mean wave heights become more frequent as WEPA and NAO positivity and variability increase. Predicting WEPA and NAO a few months ahead is crucial to anticipate coastal hazards, which is of interest for coastal and climate communities.

A pioneering and replicable method based on a 66-year numerical weather and wave hindcast is developed to optimize a climate index based on the sea level pressure (SLP) that best explains winter wave height variability along the coast of western Europe, from Portugal to UK (36-52 degrees N). The resulting so-called Western Europe Pressure Anomaly (WEPA) is based on the sea level pressure gradient between the stations Valentia (Ireland) and Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands). The WEPA positive phase reflects an intensified and southward shifted SLP difference between the Icelandic low and the Azores high, driving severe storms that funnel high-energy waves toward western Europe southward of 52 degrees N. WEPA outscores by 25-150% the other leading atmospheric modes in explaining winter-averaged significant wave height, and even by a largest amount the winter-averaged extreme wave heights. WEPA is also the only index capturing the 2013/2014 extreme winter that caused widespread coastal erosion and flooding in western Europe.

Over the last decade, modelling systems based on unstructured grids have been appearing increasingly attractive to investigate the dynamics of coastal zones. However, the resolution of the sediment continuity equation to simulate bed evolution is a complex problem which often leads to the development of numerical oscillations. To overcome this problem, addition of artificial diffusion or bathymetric filters are commonly employed methods, although these techniques can potentially over-smooth the bathymetry. This study aims to present a numerical scheme based on the Weighted Essentially Non-Oscillatory (WENO) formalism to solve the bed continuity equation on unstructured grids in a finite volume formulation. The new solution is compared against a classical method, which combines a basic node-centered finite volume method with artificial diffusion, for three idealized test cases. This comparison reveals that a higher accuracy is obtained with our new method while the addition of diffusion appears inappropriate mainly due to the arbitrary choice of the diffusion coefficient. Moreover, the increased computation time associated with the WENO-based method to solve the bed continuity equation is negligible when considering a fully-coupled simulation with tides and waves. Finally, the application of the new method to the pluri-monthly evolution of an idealized inlet subjected to tides and waves shows the development of realistic bed features (e.g. secondary flood channels, ebb-delta sandbars, or oblique sandbars at the adjacent beaches), that are smoothed or nonexistent when using additional diffusion.

Large clastic cliff-top storm deposits (called CTSDs) are one of the most remarkable signatures that characterizes extreme storm wave events on coastal cliffs. Hence, the study of CTSDs is of key importance for understanding and predicting the impacts of extreme storm wave events on rocky coasts or establishing proxies for storm intensity. The present study uses new data including hydrodynamic measurements in both deep and intertidal waters, and records of CTSDs displacement and deposition across Banneg Island during the stormy winter 2013–2014. Two drone-based surveys were carried out in January 2013 (pre-storms) and in April 2014 (post-storms). In addition, complementary field observations were carried out during the winter, providing a comprehensive and detailed dataset. Concerning the hydrodynamic measurements, nine pressure sensors deployed along four cross-shore profiles on the western coast of the island, recorded wave and water level conditions between December 2013 and April 2014. Aerial orthorectified photographs and digital elevation model of differences provide a detailed spatial description of cliff erosion and the reworking of cliff-top storm deposits. After the storms, 172 fresh scars corresponding to quarrying in the bed rock were localized above high spring tide water level, 507 blocks were transported up to 40 m inland, at altitudes of 8 to 14 m above mean sea level, and the tracks of 170 of them were identified. The water levels and wave parameters estimated from the pressure sensor measurements provided accurate information on the maximum water elevation reached during the largest storms at the sensor locations and were extrapolated to provide run-up elevation along the four survey profiles for the whole winter 2013–2014. The results demonstrate that a large number of overwash episodes occurred, at times of high tides and energetic waves. These episodes generally correspond to morphological changes. This study confirms the major role played by ex

Wave-current interactions play a major role in the dynamics of shallow tidal inlets. This study investigates these interactions at a natural inlet, with a strong focus on current-induced changes on wave propagation. The analysis of hydrodynamic data collected at the Albufeira lagoon, Portugal, revealed spatiotemporal variations of water levels and wave heights along the inlet, attributed to wave-current interaction processes. We compared the simulations of a coupled wave-circulation modeling system, computed with and without waves, and propagated with and without current feedback. The wave-induced setup inside the lagoon represented 7%-15% of the offshore significant wave height. The accuracy of the wave's predictions improved when current feedback was included. During ebb, the currents increased the wave height at the mouth of the inlet (up to 20%) and decreased the wave height in the inlet (up to 40%), due to current-induced refraction, steepness dissipation, and partial blocking. During flood, the currents decreased the wave height in the inlet (up to 10%) and increased the wave height at the exterior parts of the ebb shoal (up to 10%), due to current-induced refraction. These effects significantly attenuate seaward sediment fluxes during ebb and contribute to the sediment accretion in the inlet.

This work investigates historical variation and trends in storm climate for the South Portugal region, using data from wave buoy measurements and from modelling, for the period 1952 to 2009. Several storm parameters (annual number of storms; annual number of days with storms; annual maximum and mean individual storm duration and annual 99.8th percentile of significant wave height) were used to analyse: (1) historical storminess trends; (2) storm parameter variability and relationships; and (3) historical storminess and its relationship to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). No statistically significant linear increase or decrease was found in any of the storm parameters over the period of interest. The main pattern of storm characteristics and extreme wave heights is an oscillatory variability with intensity peaks every 7-8 yr, and the magnitude of recent variations is comparable with that of variations observed in the earlier parts of the record. In addition, the results reveal that the NAO index is able to explain only a small percentage of the variation in storm wave height, suggesting that more local factors may be of importance in controlling storminess in this region.