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We conducted a comparative study of 2 closely related and sympatric species, Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and Scaled Quail (Callipepla squamata), to explore the drivers of interspecific variation in alternative reproductive strategies. Specifically, we used parentage analyses to determine rates of extrapair paternity and intraspecific brood parasitism for each species, and evaluated possible mechanisms for explaining variation in these rates between the 2 species. During 2013–2014, we genotyped hatched (n = 388 for Northern Bobwhite and n = 214 for Scaled Quail) and unhatched (n = 32 for Northern Bobwhite and n = 9 for Scaled Quail) eggshells from 34 Northern Bobwhite and 22 Scaled Quail nests in western Oklahoma, USA. Extrapair paternity occurred in 85% of Northern Bobwhite nests and 9% of Scaled Quail nests. The number of sires for each nest was greater in Northern Bobwhite nests (x = 2.29 ± 0.14 SE sires per nest) than in Scaled Quail nests (x = 1.09 ± 0.06 sires per nest). Intras...

Potamochoerus porcus (Linnaeus, 1758) is a monotypic suid commonly known as the red river hog. It is 1 of 2 species in the genus Potamochoerus and among the smallest and most plesiomorphic (ancestral) of the 8 African suids. This is the brightest colored wild pig species and is identified by its rufous coat and white dorsal crest; spectacled black-and-white facemask; and elongated, leaf-shaped ears that end in terminally drooping tufts of hair. P. porcus lives in damp forests throughout the rainforest belt of western and central Africa; it never ranges far from thick vegetative cover, soft soils, and water. Although P. porcus is commonly harvested for subsistence and urban bushmeat markets, it is considered of “Least Concern” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

The endangered Ozark big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii ingens) is restricted to eastern Oklahoma and western and north-central Arkansas, where populations may be susceptible to losses of genetic variation due to patchy distribution of colonies and potentially small effective population sizes. We used mitochondrial D-loop DNA sequences and 15 nuclear microsatellite loci to determine population connectivity among Ozark big-eared bat caves. Assessment of 7 caves revealed a haplotype not detected in a previous study (2002–2003) and gene flow among colonies in eastern Oklahoma. Our data suggest genetic mixing of individuals, which may be occurring at nearby swarming sites in the autumn. Further evidence of limited gene flow between caves in Oklahoma with a cave in Arkansas highlights the importance of including samples from geographically widespread caves to fully understand gene flow in this subspecies. It appears autumn swarming sites and winter hibernacula play an important role in providing opportunit...

Concentration of fecal nitrogen has been used widely as an indicator of dietary quality for free-ranging ruminants. Differences in digestive function between species of dimorphic ungulates render interspecific comparisons of fecal nitrogen unreliable; however, whether intraspecific sexual differences in digestive function also bias this nutritional index is unknown. Our objective was to compare sex-specific variation in concentration of fecal nitrogen using male, nonlactating female, and lactating female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) on high- and low-quality diets. During weekly trials over spring and summer (2008–2009), we monitored intake rates, collected feces twice daily, and used micro-Kjeldahl procedures to determine percent fecal nitrogen. We also determined nitrogen content of feces following a neutral detergent fiber (NDF) rinse during pre-, peak , and postlactation. Fecal nitrogen reflected general differences in dietary quality between diets; however, fecal nitrogen of lactating females in both dietary groups was lower than for males or nonlactating females throughout lactation. Nitrogen concentration following an NDF rinse also was lower for lactating females during peak lactation. We hypothesize that the remodeling of the digestive tract and increased rumination by lactating females may enhance their ability to extract nitrogen from their forage. These adjustments may expand the foraging options of lactating females by increasing their ability to process lowquality foods, but also affects the interpretation of fecal nitrogen during the season of lactation.

Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872 (tufted deer) is usually considered polytypic with 3 or 4 recognized subspecies, depending on the source. It is a small dark chocolate-brown deer typified by a tuft of hair on its crown, sharp upper canines that protrude downward from under the upper lip, and rudimentary antlers on males; it is similar to muntjacs, to which it is closely related. E. cephalophus occurs in humid, montane forests at elevations of 300–4,750 m in southwestern through southeastern China and perhaps northwestern Myanmar (historical records). Vulnerable to poaching in remote areas and relatively uncommon in zoos, it is considered vulnerable as a Class II species in China and listed as “Near Threatened” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

The invasive yellow bluestem (Bothriochloa ischaemum [L.] Keng) threatens native biodiversity, and its control is of interest to land managers involved in restoration of invaded grasslands. We used single, double, and triple applications of glyphosate (2.125 kg ai · ha−1 · application−1) over the course of one growing season in combinations at different timings (early, middle, late season) with and without a mechanical treatment of mowing or burning to determine the most effective control method. One year after treatment, burning and mowing prior to a mid-season single or double early, middle, and/or late season herbicide application resulted in a similar level of control of yellow bluestem relative to a triple herbicide application, all of which had greater control relative to herbicide treatment alone. Reproductive tiller density and visual obstruction increased 2 yr after treatment with two herbicide treatments applied either early and middle season or early and late season, but it was prevent...

Oryx callotis O. Thomas, 1982 (fringe-eared oryx) is a relatively large, long-bodied bovid, with an appropriate common name because of its distinguishing tufts of hair extending from the ends of the ears. It occupies arid lands in Kenya and Tanzania. O. callotis can go up to a month without drinking water if succulent vegetation is available. Some herds have been semidomesticated, and 60% of the presumed 17,000 wild individuals exist in wildlife reserves, currently receiving some protection from settlement and poaching. O. callotis is considered “Vulnerable” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources but as a subspecies of O. beisa, which is listed as “Near Threatened.”

Priodontes maximus (Kerr, 1792), called the giant armadillo, is monotypic and by far the largest extant armadillo. Average adult weight is about 30 kg (in captivity, as high as 80 kg). Its carapace extends about halfway down its sides, making it impossible to curl up tightly. It is dark brown to black dorsally, with a broad light band around the lower part of its carapace. It primarily digs to escape, enhanced by its 20-cm, sickle-shaped nail on its 3rd forefingers. P. maximus is widely distributed in South America but nowhere abundant. It is affected by habitat loss and fragmentation, agriculture, hunting, collection for museum specimens, and illegal animal trafficking. P. maximus is listed as "Vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Fil: Carter, Tracy S.. Oklahoma State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Superina, Mariella. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto de Medicina y Biología Experimental de Cuyo; Argentina Fil: Leslie, David M.. Oklahoma State University; Estados Unidos

Leopardus braccatus (Cope, 1889) is a small felid—not much larger than a domestic house cat—commonly called the Pantanal cat. No comprehensive surveys have been conducted to determine how many L. braccatus exist in the wild. It is found in humid, warm grasslands and wooded areas of extreme northwestern Argentina, southwestern and south- and north-central (newly reported ranges) Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Habitat loss and degradation are considered major threats throughout most of its range. It is uncommon in captivity and museum collections, listed with all Felidae under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, and considered “Near Threatened” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in the pampas cat group ( = L. colocolo).

Summary 1. Patterns of landscape heterogeneity are crucial to the maintenance of biodiversity in shrublands and grasslands, yet management practices in these ecosystems typically seek to homogenize landscapes. Furthermore, there is limited understanding of how the interaction of ecological processes, such as fire and grazing, affects patterns of heterogeneity at different spatial scales. 2. We conducted research in Artemisia filifolia (Asteraceae) shrublands located in the southern Great Plains of North America to determine the effect of restoring the fire–grazing interaction on vegetation structure. Data were collected for 3 years in replicated pastures grazed by cattle Bos taurus where the fire–grazing interaction had been restored (fire and grazing = treatment pastures) and in pastures that were grazed but remained unburned (grazing only, no fire = control pastures). The effect of the fire–grazing interaction on heterogeneity (variance) of vegetation structure was assessed at scales from 12·5 m2 to 609 ha. 3. Most measurements of vegetation structure within treatment pastures differed from control pastures for 1–3 years after being burned but were thereafter similar to the values found in unburned control pastures. 4. Treatment pastures were characterized by a lower amount of total heterogeneity and a lower amount of heterogeneity through time. 5. Heterogeneity of vegetation structure tended to decrease as the scale of measurement increased in both treatment and control pastures. There was deviation from this trend, however, in the treatment pastures that exhibited much higher heterogeneity at the patch scale (mean patch size = 202 ha) of measurement, the scale at which patch fires were conducted. 6.Synthesis and applications. Vegetation structure in A. filifolia shrublands of our study was readily altered by the fire–grazing interaction but also demonstrated substantial resilience to these effects. The fire–grazing interaction also changed the total amount of heterogeneity characterizing this system, the scale at which heterogeneity in this system was expressed and the amount of heterogeneity expressed through time. Land managers seeking to impose a shifting mosaic of heterogeneity on this vegetation type can do so by restoring the fire–grazing interaction with potential conservation benefits similar to what has been achieved in other ecosystems where historic cycles of disturbance and rest have been restored.

In North America, most Artemisia (Asteraceae) shrub species lack the ability to resprout after disturbances that remove aboveground biomass. We studied the response of one of the few resprouting Artemisia shrubs, Artemisia filifolia (sand sagebrush), to the effects of prescribed fires. We collected data on A. filifolia density and structural characteristics (height, canopy area, and canopy volume) in an A. filifolia shrubland in the southern Great Plains of North America. Our study sites included areas that had not been treated with prescribed fire, areas that had been treated with only one prescribed fire within the previous 5 years, and areas that had been treated with two prescribed fires within the previous 10 years. Our data were collected at time periods ranging from ½ to 5 years after the prescribed fires. Density of A. filifolia was not affected by one or two fires. Structural characteristics, although initially altered by prescribed fire, recovered to levels characteristic of unburned areas in 3–4 years after those fires. In contrast to most non-sprouting North American Artemisia shrub species, our research suggested that the resprouting A. filifolia is highly tolerant to the effects of fire.

Ecosystems in the eastern United States that were shaped by fire over thousands of years of anthropogenic burning recently have been subjected to fire suppression resulting in significant changes in vegetation composition and structure and encroachment by invasive species. Renewed interest in use of fire to manage such ecosystems will require knowledge of effects of fire regime on vegetation. We studied the effects of one aspect of the fire regime, fire frequency, on biomass, cover and diversity of understory vegetation in upland oak forests prescribe-burned for 20 years at different frequencies ranging from zero to five fires per decade. Overstory canopy closure ranged from 88 to 96% and was not affected by fire frequency indicating high tolerance of large trees for even the most frequent burning. Understory species richness and cover was dominated by woody reproduction followed in descending order by forbs, C3 graminoids, C4 grasses, and legumes. Woody plant understory cover did not change with fire frequency and increased 30% from one to three years after a burn. Both forbs and C3 graminoids showed a linear increase in species richness and cover as fire frequency increased. In contrast, C4 grasses and legumes did not show a response to fire frequency. The reduction of litter by fire may have encouraged regeneration of herbaceous plants and helped explain the positive response of forbs and C3 graminoids to increasing fire frequency. Our results showed that herbaceous biomass, cover, and diversity can be managed with long-term prescribed fire under the closed canopy of upland oak forests.

Rusa unicolor (Kerr, 1792), or sambar, is the largest Oriental deer. Seven subspecies occur in varied habitats and elevations from India and Sri Lanka throughout southeastern Asia. Body mass and antler length decrease from west to east. R. unicolor is considered ancestral relative to the form of its male-only antlers and social behavior. Populations are vulnerable because of overexploitation for subsistence and markets in meat and antlers. R. unicolor was elevated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources from no status in 2006 to “Vulnerable” in 2008 because of >50% decline in many populations over the past 3 generations. It is well represented in zoos and private collections and is introduced in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States.

Rhinoceros sondaicus Desmarest, 1822, commonly called the Javan rhinoceros or lesser one-horned rhinoceros, is the most critically endangered large mammal on Earth with only 40–50 extant individuals in 2 disjunct and distant populations: most in Ujung Kulon, West Java, and only 2–6 (optimistically) in Cat Loc, Vietnam. R. sondaicus is polytypic with 3 recognized subspecies: R. s. sondaicus (currently West Java), R. s. inermis (formerly Sunderbunds; no doubt extinct), and R. s. annamiticus (Vietnam; perhaps now extinct). R. sondaicus is a browser and currently occupies lowland semievergreen secondary forests in Java and marginal habitat in Vietnam; it was once more widespread and abundant, likely using a greater variety of habitats. R. sondaicus has a very spotty history of husbandry, and no individuals are currently in captivity. Conservation focuses on protection from poaching and habitat loss. Following decades-long discussion of captive breeding and establishment of a 3rd wild population, conservation and governmental agencies appear closer to taking such seriously needed action on the latter.

We evaluated foraging and nesting behavior, territory size, and nest success of Golden-cheeked Warblers (Dendroica chrysoparia), a federally endangered songbird, relative to mountain biking trail use. We conducted our study at two mountain biking sites and two control sites at Fort Hood Military Base and in Austin, Texas, in spring 2002 and 2003. Territories of male Golden-cheeked Warblers in biking sites (2.2 ha) were >1.5 times as large as those in non-biking sites (1.4 ha). Mayfield nest success in biking sites (n = 33) was 35% compared to 70% in non-biking sites (n = 22). Nest abandonment was three times greater in biking areas (15%) than non-biking areas (5%). Seven nests were depredated in biking sites, but only two nests were depredated in non-biking sites. Texas rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta) were the most frequent nest predator at biking sites, accounting for 71% of the predations. We conducted behavioral observations of male Golden-cheeked Warblers in biking (n = 139) and non-biking...

Procapra picticaudata Hodgson, 1846, is commonly called the Tibetan gazelle, goa ( = Tibetan), or zang yuan ling ( = Chinese) and is monotypic. It is a high-elevation specialist endemic to the Tibetan Plateau where it prefers alpine meadow and alpine steppe but uses other lower-elevation plains and valleys. It is partial to good grasslands with high diversity of forbs. There have been no systematic estimates of total numbers of P. picticaudata. Populations are currently widespread but have been reduced from historic levels and are vulnerable because of poaching in remote areas and competition with livestock of pastoralists. P. picticaudata is uncommon in zoos and private collections. It is a threatened Class II species in China and considered “Near Threatened” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

Procapra przewalskii (Buchner, 1891), commonly called Przewalski's gazelle, is polytypic with 1 of the 2 subspecies (P. p. diversicornis) likely extinct. The species now occurs only in the Qinghai Lake region in northeastern Qinghai Province, western China, and predominately inhabits semiarid grassland steppe, stable sand dunes, and the desert–shrub ecotone between them. Numbers and distribution of P. przewalskii have decreased severely from historic levels, and up to 10 small and disjunct populations are vulnerable because of agricultural usurpation of preferred habitat, competition with livestock, and illegal hunting. Total population is perhaps as high as 1,000–1,300 individuals. It is a Class I species and listed as “Critically Endangered” in China and considered “Endangered” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. It is arguably among the most endangered large mammals on earth.

Parasites represent an element within natural systems that can elucidate interactions between their hosts and the environment. We collected and examined ectoparasites (80 samples) and fecal samples for endoparasites (81 samples) from 82 swift foxes (Vulpes velox) captured or collected in the Oklahoma Panhandle during summer and winter 2003–2004 and summer and autumn 2004. Six taxa of external parasites and nine taxa of internal parasites were identified. Overall prevalence of swift foxes infested with external parasites was 99% (range, 1–90% by individual parasite), which included four species of fleas and two species of ticks. Overall prevalence of swift foxes infected with internal parasites was 68% (range, 4–35% by species of parasite), including six nematodes, one cestode, one protozoan, and one mite. We observed two new external parasites not previously recorded for swift foxes, Spilopsyllus inaequalis and Dermacentor variabilis. More males than females were infected with Toxocara. Our resul...

Bos grunniens Linnaeus, 1766, and Bos mutus (Przewalski, 1883) are the domestic and wild forms, respectively, of the bovid commonly called the yak. B. mutus inhabits remote high-elevation alpine meadows and alpine steppe in rolling to mountainous terrain in the Tibetan Plateau, and B. grunniens is maintained widely in China and other parts of Central Asia, and uncommonly elsewhere in the world. Populations of B. mutus are substantially reduced and fragmented throughout its remaining range; the largest numbers occur in northern Tibet and western Qinghai. B. mutus is vulnerable because of poaching and competition with domestic livestock. Although no complete survey of B. mutus has been conducted, there are probably no more than 15,000 remaining in remote areas of the Tibetan Plateau; B. grunniens numbers about 14 million. DOI: 10.1644/836.1.

Survival of chicks of the interior least tern (Sterna antillarum athalassos) has been difficult to estimate due to their semi-precocial development and cryptic coloration. After chicks disperse from the nest, they rarely are relocated. Our objectives were to estimate survival of chicks and study their movement patterns. In 1999, we attached radiotransmitters to 25 chicks and tracked them for 2–19 days depending on retention of transmitter. Because fate could not be determined always when signals were lost, a high and low estimate of survival was calculated. Kaplan-Meier estimates of survival were calculated first by assuming that all lost signals represented mortalities, and second that these transmitters failed and chicks were alive. This resulted in a minimum estimate of 5% of chicks surviving at the end of the study period and a high of 27%. Five chicks fledged, six died, and fate of the remaining 14 was undetermined. Although chicks appeared to allocate a substantial part of their daily movem...

Mountain Plover (Charadrius montanus) populations are inefficiently sampled by Breeding Bird Surveys. As a result, targeted sampling of select populations of this species (with an estimated global population of 11,000–14,000 birds) can be valuable. Our objectives were to determine the breeding distribution and estimate the size of the Mountain Plover population in Oklahoma. We conducted a randomized point count survey in an area where Mountain Plovers were previously known to breed and conducted additional surveys over a larger area to better delimit the distribution. We used a removal model to estimate detection probability for raw counts obtained from 1104 point counts in 2004 and 2005, and derived a state-level population estimate using the detection-adjusted counts. Mountain Plovers used flat, bare, cultivated fields for nesting, and their distribution was closely tied to the presence of clay loam soils. We estimated that at least 68–91 Mountain Plovers bred in Oklahoma in 2004–2005. The low breeding density we observed may be due to the location of our study area near the southeastern edge of the breeding range of these plovers, the low-quality habitat provided by cultivated landscapes, or a combination of factors. Because the number of birds is small, the status of the Oklahoma population is not likely to have a large effect on the global population. However, additional information is needed to help determine if cultivated landscapes represented population sources or sinks. RESUMEN Las poblaciones de chorlo (Charadrius montanus) son muestreadas ineficientemente durante los censos de aves reproductivas (BBS). Como resultado, el muestreo particular de poblaciones seleccionadas (con un estimado global de 11,000a 14,000 individuos) puede ser de gran valor. Nuestros objetivos fueron determinar la distribucion reproductiva y estimar el tamano de las poblaciones del chorlo en Oklahoma. Llevamos a cabo una serie de conteos de punto al azar, en un area en donde previamente no se conocia que el ave se reproducia, y se condujeron censos adicionales en un area mayor para delimitar la distribucion del ave. Utilizamos un modelo de remocion para estimar la probabilidad de deteccion para conteos crudos y deribar un estimado de la poblacion a nivel estatal, de un total de 1104 conteos de puntos llevados a cabo durante el 2004 y el 2005. Los chorlos utilizaron areas llanas de cultivo con suelo desnudo, para el anidamiento y su distribucion estuvo asociada a la presencia de suelo arcillosos. Estimamos que entre 68–91 individuos se reprodujeron en Oklahoma entre el 2004–2005. La baja densidad reproductiva pudiera ser un artefacto de la localizacion de nuestra area de estudio, la cual queda cerca del borde sureste de su distribucion reproductiva, la baja calidad del habitat (como resultado del uso de estas para cultivos) o de una combinacion de factores. Aunque el numero de individuos resulto bajo, el estatus del chorlo en Oklahoma, no debe tener un efecto significativo sobre la poblacion global del ave. Sin embargo, se necesita informacion adicional para determinar si las areas de cultivo representan una fuente de riesgo para la poblacion.

Three species of Buteo hawks nest sympatrically in the southern Great Plains of the United States. Dietary overlap among them is broad and we tested the hypothesis these species partition their breeding habitat spatially. We compared land cover and topography around 224 nests of the three species breeding in shortgrass prairie in 2004 and 2005. Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) nested almost exclusively in riparian timber surrounded by prairie (95% prairie land cover around nests) and disproportionately used areas with greater topographic relief within prairie landscapes. Swainson's Hawks (B. swainsoni) commonly nested in low-relief areas dominated by small-grain production agriculture but generally used habitats in proportion to availability. Most nest sites of Ferruginous Hawks (B. regalis) were in prairie (78% prairie land cover around nests), but some were in areas that were at least partially agricultural. Ferruginous Hawks had at least two times more sand sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia) ...

Subspecific affinities, determination of population boundaries, and levels of population connectedness are of critical importance for the development of management and conservation planning. We used variation at a mitochondrial locus and 5 biparentally inherited nuclear loci to determine partitioning of genetic variation of western big-eared bats (Corynorhinus townsendii) within and among caves occurring in a fragmented landscape of gypsum deposits in western Oklahoma. To accomplish this objective, we first performed a phylogenetic analysis based on the mitochondrial locus of western big-eared bats from a large portion of their range. This analysis indicated that western big-eared bats at the periphery of the distribution in western Oklahoma share phylogenetic affinities with the most geographically restricted subspecies, C. t. pallescens. Because C. townsendii is rare in Oklahoma and is listed as a species of special concern, this finding provides additional support for the continued protection of this species in Oklahoma. Within western Oklahoma, we failed to detect significant differentiation among any caves for the biparentally inherited microsatellite data. However, the mitochondrial locus exhibited significant levels of genetic differentiation among caves, with the highest level of differentiation occurring between caves within the disjunct distributions of gypsum (ST ¼ 38.76%). Although a significant amount of genetic differentiation was detected between populations on the 2 disjunct distributions of gypsum deposits, Analysis with the program Migrate suggested high levels of asymmetric gene flow among some populations. Our results provide a greater understanding of the population dynamics of western big-eared bats on the periphery of their range and highlight the importance of continued monitoring and study of this taxon.

Fecal nitrogen (FN) has been applied widely as an index of dietary quality in studies of nutritional ecology of free-ranging and captive vertebrate herbivores, particularly ruminants. Three related articles in the Journal of Wildlife Management (JWM; Leslie and Starkey 1985, 1987; Hobbs 1987) have been cited (n = 150) in 87 publications and 39 peer-reviewed journals. The critique by Hobbs (1987) and the reply by Leslie and Starkey (1987) on limitations and appropriate applications of FN have been used to justify use of FN or negate its value as a nutritional proxy. We undertook a retrospective analysis of FN applications since 1985, largely because we sensed that methodological cautions noted in the 3 JWM publications were not being followed, leading to faulty conclusions and management applications, and that application protocols needed updating. From January 1986 through July 2007, the 107 species-by-continent applications of FN, citing the 3 JWM publications singly or in any combination, were ...

Boselaphus tragocamelus (Pallas, 1766) is a bovid commonly called the nilgai or blue bull and is Asia's largest antelope. A sexually dimorphic ungulate of large stature and unique coloration, it is the only species in the genus Boselaphus. It is endemic to peninsular India and small parts of Pakistan and Nepal, has been extirpated from Bangladesh, and has been introduced in the United States (Texas), Mexico, South Africa, and Italy. It prefers open grassland and savannas and locally is a significant agricultural pest in India. It is not of special conservation concern and is well represented in zoos and private collections throughout the world.

Forest management affects the quality and availability of roost sites for forest-dwelling bats, but information on roost selection beyond the scale of individual forest stands is limited. We evaluated effects of topography (elevation, slope, and proximity of roads and streams), forest habitat class, and landscape patch configuration on selection of summer diurnal roosts by 6 species of forest-dwelling bats in a diverse forested landscape of the Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas, USA. Our objectives were to identify landscape attributes that potentially affect roost placement, determine whether commonalities exist among species in their response to landscape attributes, and evaluate the effects of scale. We modeled roost selection at 2 spatial scales (250- and 1,000-m radius around each roost). For each species, parameters included in models differed between the 2 scales, and there were no shared parameters for 2 species. Average coefficients of determination (R2) for small-scale models were generally ...

Grazing management has focused largely on promoting vegetation homogeneity through uniform distribution of grazing to minimize area in a pasture that is either heavily disturbed or undisturbed. An alternative management model that couples grazing and fire (i.e., patch burning) to promote heterogeneity argues that grazing and fire interact through a series of positive and negative feedbacks to cause a shifting mosaic of vegetation composition and structure across the landscape. We compared patch burning with traditional homogeneity-based management in tallgrass prairie to determine the influence of the two treatments on the aboveground invertebrate community. Patch burning resulted in a temporal flush of invertebrate biomass in patches transitional between unburned and patches burned in the current year. Total invertebrate mass was about 50% greater in these transitional patches within patch-burned pastures as compared to pastures under traditional, homogeneity-based management. Moreover, the mosaic of patches in patch-burned pastures contained a wider range of invertebrate biomass and greater abundance of some invertebrate orders than did the traditionally managed pastures. Patch burning provides habitat that meets requirements for a broad range of invertebrate species, suggesting the potential for patch burning to benefit other native animal assemblages in the food chain.

Regional wildlife–habitat models are commonly developed but rarely tested with truly independent data. We tested a published habitat model for black bears (Ursus americanus) with new data collected in a different site in the same ecological region (i.e., Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma, USA). We used a Mahalanobis distance model developed from relocations of black bears in Arkansas to produce a map layer of Mahalanobis distances on a study area in neighboring Oklahoma. We tested this modeled map layer with relocations of black bears on the Oklahoma area. The distributions of relocations of female black bears were consistent with model predictions. We conclude that this modeling approach can be used to predict regional suitability for a species of interest.

Nonprofit scientific societies hope that their activities advance their particular mission and impact their profession and, in the broadest sense, humanity in positive ways. The digital age has provided unprecedented mechanisms to enhance the delivery of science to the world. The marketplace of scientific publishing is a rapidly shifting mosaic of challenges and opportunities, and the responses of nonprofit and commercial publishers vary widely, but their outcomes are still uncertain. The response of the American Society of Mammalogists (ASM) provides an example of how a relatively small society has altered its scientific delivery to enhance member benefits while attempting to sustain its economic viability. Since 2000, ASM has moved from a self-publishing, break-even, print-only model to a copublishing agreement with a commercial publisher (Alliance Communications Group, a division of Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas), which now offers members various print and electronic options and generates a shared royalty. Although it is too early to gauge the economic impact of these changes, the ASM leadership clearly attempted to signal its desire for members to view their society as a package of opportunities for edification and involvement rather than just a provider of serial subscriptions. Future challenges facing nonprofit scientific societies include open access, fiscal realities, archiving of publications, and scientific and societal impact; future opportunities include a strengthening of member responsibilities and professionalism, development of data registries to enhance scientific progress, and bundling of like societies. The manner in which nonprofit scientific societies respond to these challenges and opportunities will no doubt affect their sustainability and future impact.

In tallgrass prairie, disturbances such as grazing and fire can generate patchiness across the landscape, contributing to a shifting mosaic that presumably enhances biodiversity. Grassland birds evolved within the context of this shifting mosaic, with some species restricted to one or two patch types created under spatially and temporally distinct disturbance regimes. Thus, management-driven reductions in heterogeneity may be partly responsible for declines in numbers of grassland birds. We experimentally altered spatial heterogeneity of vegetation structure within a tallgrass prairie by varying the spatial and temporal extent of fire and by allowing grazing animals to move freely among burned and unburned patches (patch treatment). We contrasted this disturbance regime with traditional agricultural management of the region that promotes homogeneity (traditional treatment). We monitored grassland bird abundance during the breeding seasons of 2001-2003 to determine the influence of altered spatial heterogeneity on the grassland bird community. Focal disturbances of patch burning and grazing that shifted through the landscape over several years resulted in a more heterogeneous pattern of vegetation than uniform application of fire and grazing. Greater spatial heterogeneity in vegetation provided greater variability in the grassland bird community. Some bird species occurred in greatest abundance within focally disturbed patches, while others occurred in relatively undisturbed patches in our patch treatment. Henslow's Sparrow, a declining species, occurred only within the patch treatment. Upland Sandpiper and some other species were more abundant on recently disturbed patches within the same treatment. The patch burn treatment created the entire gradient of vegetation structure required to maintain a suite of grassland bird species that differ in habitat preferences. Our study demonstrated that increasing spatial and temporal heterogeneity of disturbance in grasslands increases variability in vegetation structure that results in greater variability at higher trophic levels. Thus, management that creates a shifting mosaic using spatially and temporally discrete disturbances in grasslands can be a useful tool in conservation. In the case of North American tallgrass prairie, discrete fires that capitalize on preferential grazing behavior of large ungulates promote a shifting mosaic of habitat types that maintain biodiversity and agricultural productivity.

Wind-power development is occurring throughout North America, but its effects on mammals are largely unexplored. Our objective was to determine response (i.e., home-range, diet quality) of Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus) to wind-power development in southwestern Oklahoma. Ten elk were radiocollared in an area of wind-power development on 31 March 2003 and were relocated bi-weekly through March 2005. Wind-power construction was initiated on 1 June 2003 and was completed by December 2003 with 45 active turbines. The largest composite home range sizes (>80 km2) occurred April–June and September, regardless of the status of wind-power facility development. The smallest home range sizes (

DNA sequence variation from two nuclear introns and part of the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene were used to evaluate population structure among three subspecies of Least Tern that nest in the United States (California [Sterna antillarum browni], Interior [S. a. athalassos], Eastern [S. a. antillarum]). Sequence variation was highest for nuclear intron XI (Gadp) within the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene. The second nuclear intron was fixed for the same allele in all subspecies. Fixation indices, FST and MST, for Gadp indicated genetic divergence between California and Interior subspecies. Estimates of nuclear gene flow were

Nest-site selection behaviors have rarely been described for songbirds. Furthermore, male involvement in nest-site selection is generally assumed to be minimal among most species, especially those predominantly exhibiting female nest building. This assumption has held true for the federally endangered Golden-cheeked Warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia), a breeding resident of central Texas. We observed Golden-cheeked Warbler males and females searching for nest sites together on three separate occasions, 2001– 2003. Although rare, such observations add to our knowledge of the life history of songbirds.

We assessed variation in length, width, density, and surface enlargement factor of papillae; rumen and intestinal digesta weight; intestinal length; and intestinal tissue weight of reproductive and nonreproductive female whitetailed (Odocoileus virginianus) and mule deer (O. hemionus) using similar burned and unburned habitat. Deer were collected from study areas in Custer and Pennington counties, South Dakota, in and adjacent to a wildfire burn. Length of papillae and enlargement factor of papillae surface of white-tailed deer and mule deer were greater in burned than unburned habitat, and dry weight of rumen digesta of white-tailed deer was greater in unburned than burned habitat. Papillae surface enlargement factor, papillae length and width, and dry weight of rumen and intestinal digesta were greater for lactating than nonlactating white-tailed deer. Papillae density, intestinal digesta dry weight, and intestinal length were greater in mule deer than white-tailed deer. The mosaic pattern of the burned habitat was beneficial at the mucosal level for white-tailed and mule deer within 3 years postfire. Enhanced papillae morphology of lactating compared with nonlactating and pregnant deer was attributed to high nutritional demands associated with reproductive status. Papillae density may be more important in mule deer because of feeding strategy (concentrate selector‐intermediate feeder) compared to white-tailed deer (concentrate selector), whereas greater rumen digesta dry weight and intestinal length may be directly associated with size.

Fire and bison (Bison bison) are thought to be historically responsible for shaping prairie vegetation in North America. Interactions between temporal–spatial distributions of bison and prescribed burning protocols are important in current restoration of tallgrass prairies. We examined dynamics of bison distribution in a patch-burned tallgrass prairie in the south-central United States relative to bison group size and composition, and burn age and temporal distribution. Bison formed larger mixed groups during summer and smaller sexually segregated groups the rest of the year, and bison selected dormant-season burn patches in the 1st postfire growing season most often during spring and summer. Large bison herds selecting recently burned areas resulted in seasonally variable and concentrated grazing pressure that may substantially alter site-specific vegetation. These dynamics must be considered when reintroducing bison and fire into tallgrass prairie because variable outcomes of floral richness an...

Human disturbance has caused declines in populations of many cave-dwelling bats and other cave-obligate organisms. Cave gating has been used to eliminate human disturbance, but few studies have assessed its impact on internal cave climate. We recorded ambient (air) and substrate (rock) temperatures at specified distances within the entrances of 3 gated and 3 open-passage caves in northeastern Oklahoma during summers 1999 and 2000 and winters 1999–2000 and 2000–2001. No differences occurred in ambient and substrate temperatures at any distance or season between gated and open-passage caves. We also monitored long-term (6 weeks) and seasonal (summer and winter) climate variables at specific distances inside 2 caves (OK-13 and OK-220) before and after modifications of their cave passages/entrances. Ambient and substrate temperatures before and after cave manipulation differed in only 1 of 12 observations in summer but in 9 of 12 observations in winter. We also monitored cave climate 7 days immediate...

Little is known about the ecology of the alligator snapping turtle, Macrochelys temminckii, particularly demography and behavior. To learn more about the species in Oklahoma, we conducted a telemetry project on 2 small streams at Sequoyah National Wildlife Refuge, an 8,417.5-ha refuge located in east-central Oklahoma. Between June 1999 and August 2000, we fitted 19 M. temminckii with ultrasonic telemetry tags and studied turtle movements and microhabitat use. Turtles were checked 2 to 3 times weekly in summer and sporadically in winter. Several microhabitat variables were measured at each turtle location and a random location to help quantify microhabitat use vs. availability. We recorded 147 turtle locations. Turtles were always associated with submerged cover with a high percentage of overhead canopy cover. Turtles used deeper depths in late summer (but not deeper depths than random locations) and deeper depths in midwinter (and deeper depths than random locations) than in early summer. They us...

The Ozark big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii ingens) is federally listed as endangered and is found in only a small number of caves in eastern Oklahoma and northwestern Arkansas. Previous studies suggested site fidelity of females to maternity caves; however, males are solitary most of the year, and thus specific information on their behavior and roosting patterns is lacking. Population genetic variation often provides the necessary data to make inferences about gene flow or mating behavior within that population. We used 2 types of molecular data: DNA sequences from the mitochondrial D loop and alleles at 5 microsatellite loci. Approximately 5% of the population, 24 males and 39 females (63 individuals), were sampled. No significant differentiation between 5 sites was present in nuclear microsatellite variation, but distribution of variation in maternally inherited markers differed among sites. This suggests limited dispersal of female Ozark big-eared bats and natal philopatry. Areas that experience local extinctions are unlikely to be recolonized by species that show strong site fidelity. These results provide a greater understanding of the population dynamics of Ozark big-eared bats and highlight the importance of cave protection relative to maintaining genetic integrity during recovery activities for this listed species.

Understanding how populations expand to recolonize former habitats is important to restoration efforts in wildlife management and conservation. Translocation of black bears (Ursus americanus) to Arkansas in the 1950s and 1960s has led to recolonization of former bear range in Oklahoma, with substantial increases in distribution and abundance of the species in Oklahoma over the last 15 years. We studied demographics of black bears in southeastern Oklahoma from May 2001 to November 2002 to provide insight into characteristics of recolonizing populations of large carnivores. We trapped 51 black bears (22 M, 29 F) 77 times and radiocollared 25 female bears. Sex ratios of adults and cubs were skewed toward females, and the age structure was younger than observed in other unharvested populations. Survival of adult females was estimated at 0.9 ±0.1, and fertility was estimated at 0.77 female young/female/year. Density on the study area was estimated at 0.21 bears/km2 and the current finite growth rate (...

Changes in landscape cover in the Great Plains are resulting from the range expansion and invasion of eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). By altering the landscape and local vegetation, red cedar is changing the structure and function of habitat for small mammals. We examined effects of invasion by eastern red cedar on small mammals in 3 plant communities (tallgrass prairie, old field, and cross-timbers forest) in the cross-timbers ecoregion in Oklahoma. We sampled small mammals seasonally from May 2001 to August 2002 by using Sherman live traps and mark‐recapture techniques on 3.24-ha, 450-trap grids in each plant community. We sampled vegetation in two hundred twenty-five 12� 12-m cells within each grid. The structure of the smallmammal community differed among the 3 habitat types, with higher species diversity and richness in the tallgrass-prairie and old-field sites. Overall, the small-mammal community shifted along a gradient of increasing eastern red cedar. In the old-field and tallgrass-prairie plots, occurrence of grassland mammals decreased with increasing red cedar, whereas only 1 woodland mammal species increased. In the cross-timbers forest site, percent woody cover (,1 m in height), rather than cover of red cedar, was the most important factor affecting woodland mammal species. Examination of our data suggests that an increase in overstory cover from 0% to 30% red cedar can change a species-rich prairie community to a depauperate community dominated by 1 species, Peromyscus leucopus. Losses in species diversity and changes in mammal distribution paralleled those seen in avian communities invaded by eastern red cedar. Our results highlight ecological effects of invasion by eastern red cedar on diversity and function at multiple trophic levels.

Loss of grassland species resulting from activities such as off-road vehicle use increases the need for models that predict effects of anthropogenic disturbance. The relationship of disturbance by military training to plant species richness and composition on two soils (Foard and Lawton) in a mixed prairie area was investigated. Track cover (cover of vehicle disturbance to the soil) and soil organic carbon were selected as measures of short- and long-term disturbance, respectively. Soil and vegetation data, collected in 1-m2 quadrats, were analyzed at three spatial scales (60, 10, and 1 m2). Plant species richness peaked at intermediate levels of soil organic carbon at the 10-m2 and 1-m2 spatial scales on both the Lawton and Foard soils, and at intermediate levels of track cover at all three spatial scales on the Foard soil. Species composition differed across the disturbance gradient on the Foard soil but not on the Lawton soil. Disturbance increased total plant species richness on the Foard soil. The authors conclude that disturbance up to intermediate levels can be used to maintain biodiversity by enriching the plant species pool.

Nitrogen (N) enrichment of terrestrial ecosystems dramatically changes ecosystem diversity and structure of plant communities. Research designed to elucidate effects of nitrogen addition on mammalian assemblages is rare. We investigated nitrogen requirements of hispid cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) and fulvous harvest mice (Reilhrodontomys fulvescens), small mammals native to the tallgrass prairie of the southern Great Plains, USA, to better understand population responses of these species to nitrogen enrichment. We studied reproductive requirements by measuring growth of offspring under varying levels of dietary nitrogen. We predicted that dietary niche would dictate nitrogen requirements, such that the larger herbivore (S. hispidus) would have a lower dietary need for nitrogen per unit mass than the small omnivore/granivore (R. fulvescens). Reproductive output (measured as mass gain of litters and offspring) was responsive to varying nitrogen in cotton rats but not in harvest mice. Nitrogen intake that supported 50% survival of juvenile harvest mice (1.34% dietary nitrogen) also was adequate for maximum growth (1.29%). Cotton rats potentially drew on maternal nutrient stores to support litter growth at low levels of dietary nitrogen (as low as 1.08%). Overall, nitrogen requirements for maximum reproduction were greater (2.31%) dietary nitrogen) for cotton rats. We conclude that life history characteristics and body size constraints rather than dietary niche explain the differential species response to variation in dietary nitrogen. Our results imply that nitrogen enrichment in old-field succession in the southern Great Plains may lead to dominance by cotton rats and a reduction in diversity of the small-mammal assemblage. Consumers with similar abilities to take advantage of increased environmental nitrogen may likewise dominate other ecosystems.

We conducted a mark-recapture experiment to examine population dynamics of the fulvous harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys fulvescens) and plains harvest mouse (R. montanus) in response to low-level nitrogen amendments (16.4 kg N/ha/y) in an old-field grassland. The experimental design consisted of 16, 0.16-ha plots with four replicates of each treatment combination (fenced, nitrogen amendment; unfenced, nitrogen amendment; fenced, control; unfenced, control). We predicted that densities, survival, and transition probabilities would be greater for both species on nitrogen-amended plots because of greater aboveground biomass (i.e., enhanced concealment from predators). We observed no distinct patterns in survival or transition probabilities of R. fulvescens or R. montanus with regard to treatments. Although population densities of R. fulvescens did not exhibit any distinct patterns with regard to treatments, densities of R. montanus tended to be highest on nitrogen plots, but lowest on nitrogen-fenced ...

The contribution of small mammals to nitrogen cycling could have repercussions for the producer community in the maintaining or perhaps magnifying of nitrogen availability. Our objective was to model nitrogen outputs (deposition of feces and urine) of small mammals in an old-field ecosystem and estimate the amount of fecal and urinary nitrogen deposited annually. To address this objective, we used models from laboratory studies and combined these with data from field studies to estimate dietary nitrogen and monthly and annual nitrogen outputs from fecal and urine deposition of five rodent species. The models accounted for monthly fluctuations in density and biomass of small-mammal populations. We estimated that the minimal amount of nitrogen deposited by rodents was 1.0 (0.9-1.1) and 2.7 (2.6-2.9) kg Nha(-1) year(-1) from feces and urine, respectively, for a total contribution of 3.7 (3.5-4.0) kg Nha(-1) year(-1). Hispid cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) accounted for75% of the total nitrogen output by small mammals. Our estimates of annual fecal and urinary nitrogen deposited by rodents were comparable to nitrogen deposits by larger herbivores and other nitrogen fluxes in grassland ecosystems and should be considered when assessing the potential effects of herbivory on terrestrial nitrogen cycles.

Although historic records of the alligator snapping turtle, Macrochelys temminckii, show a past distribution throughout eastern Oklahoma, little is known about the current status and distribution of this species in the state. In 1997, surveys were initiated to identify extant populations of M. temminckii and assess their relative densities and viability. We surveyed 67 sites in 15 counties, with a total effort of 1,085 net nights. A total of 63 M. temminckii was captured at 11 sites, which are only in the southeastern quarter of the state and occur only in protected or isolated locations. Because of this apparent decrease of the range of this species in Oklahoma and because so few sites exhibited capture rates high enough to suggest possible healthy populations, we conclude that dramatic population declines of M. temminckii have taken place in Oklahoma. Possible reasons for these declines include overharvest and habitat alteration.