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Background: The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and climate change are two simultaneously occurring large scale environmental health crises. This provides an opportunity to compare the risk perception of both crises in the population. In particular, whether experiencing the acute pandemic sensitizes people to the risks of ongoing climate change. Methods: Panel participants answered a web-based questionnaire. The risk perception of SARS-CoV-2 and influencing factors were assessed. Differences of risk perception dimensions regarding SARS-CoV-2 and climate change were analyzed as well as associations between dimensions. Results: The results show that an economic impact by the pandemic is associated with more dimensions of SARS-CoV-2 risk perception than an experienced health impact. Moreover, dimensions of risk perception of the pandemic and climate change are perceived differently. Furthermore, the affective dimension of pandemic risk perception is significantly associated with all dimensions of climate change risk perception. Conclusions: Emotional-based coping with the risks of SARS-CoV-2 is associated with risk perception of climate change as well as various factors that shape the individuals’ risk perception. It is currently necessary and will be increasingly necessary in the future to solve coexisting crises, not selectively, but in a common context within the framework of a social-ecological and economic transformation.

Urban residency is associated with exposure to environmental factors, which can influence health in many ways. Neuroscientific research, as well as Public Health research, aim towards broadening evidence in the field of Urban Health. However, it is unclear whether the association between urban living and mental illnesses is causal rather than explainable by other selective effects. This review seeks to gather information on the current evidence regarding urban living and neurological outcomes to demonstrate how Public Health and Neuroscience could complement each other in the field of Urban Health. A scoping review was conducted in four electronic databases according to the PRISMA-statement guidelines. 25 empirical studies were included. Outcomes such as schizophrenia and psychotic disorders, social and cognitive functioning were scrutinised. Evidence was found for alteration of brain functioning and brain structure. Most studies researching cognitive functioning or cognitive decline displayed possible protective effects of urban living compared to rural living. The different study designs in Public Health and Neuroscience could profit from each other. Although the comparability of studies is limited by the inconsistent assessments of urbanity. Synergies and potentials to combine aspects of Public Health and Neuroscience in the field of Urban Health to improve population health became apparent.

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has changed lives around the world. In particular, healthcare workers faced significant challenges as a result of the pandemic. This study investigates the seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in March-April 2020 in Germany among healthcare workers and relates it to questionnaire data. In June 2020, all employees of the reporting hospital were offered a free SARS-CoV-2 antibody test. The first 2,550 test results were sent along with study documents. The response rate was 15.1%. The COVID-19 PCR test prevalence amongst health care workers in this study was 1.04% (95% CI 0.41-2.65%), higher by a factor of 5 than in the general population (p=0.01). The ratio of seroprevalence to PCR prevalence was 1.5. COVID-19-associated symptoms were also prevalent in the non-COVID-19-positive population. Only two symptoms showed statistically significant odds ratios, loss of smell and loss of taste. Health care workers largely supported non-pharmaceutical interventions during the initial lockdown (93%). Individual behavior correlated significantly with attitudes toward policy interventions and perceived individual risk factors. Our data suggest that healthcare workers may be at higher risk of infection. Therefore, a discussion about prioritizing vaccination makes sense. They also support offering increased SARS-CoV-2 testing to hospital workers. It is concluded that easier access to SARS-CoV-2 testing reduces the number of unreported cases. Furthermore, individual attitudes toward rules and regulations on COVID-19 critically influence compliance. Thus, one goal of public policy should be to maintain high levels of support for non-pharmaceutical interventions to keep actual compliance high.

**Hintergrund** Menschen mit Fluchtgeschichte sind mit einer Vielzahl von rechtlichen, strukturellen, administrativen, kulturellen und sprachlichen Barrieren im Zugang zur Gesundheitsversorgung konfrontiert. Derzeit liegen jedoch wenig Daten zu gesundheitlichen Bedarfen und Bedürfnissen von Geflüchteten vor. Insbesondere ihre subjektiven Erfahrungen im Zugang zur Gesundheitsversorgung sind bisher wenig berücksichtigt worden. **Ziel der Arbeit** In diesem Beitrag sollen die subjektiven Erfahrungen von Menschen mit Fluchtgeschichte beim Zugang zur Gesundheitsversorgung und bei deren Nutzung beschrieben werden. Strategien bei der Bewältigung von Herausforderungen werden dargestellt. **Methoden** Die Rekrutierung der InterviewpartnerInnen erfolgte anhand von quantitativen Querschnittsdaten, die im Rahmen einer Studie zur Gesundheit von Geflüchteten (FlüGe-Gesundheitsstudie) erhoben wurden. Personen, die einer erneuten Kontaktaufnahme zugestimmt hatten, wurden telefonisch kontaktiert. Es wurde eine im Hinblick auf Alter, Geschlecht, Nationalität, Gesundheitszustand und Inanspruchnahmeverhalten heterogene Teilstichprobe (n = 18) mittels dolmetschergestützter problemzentrierter Interviews nachbefragt. Die Datenauswertung erfolgte in einem deduktiv-induktiven Prozess. **Ergebnisse und Diskussion** Die wenig migrationssensible Gesundheitsversorgung von Menschen mit Fluchtgeschichte ist geprägt durch Sprachbarrieren, Orientierungslosigkeit, Ablehnungserfahrungen, Fehlbehandlungen und strukturelle Barrieren. Fremdheitserfahrungen in und mit dem Gesundheitssystem können dazu führen, dass die Versorgung nicht (mehr) oder nur verzögert in Anspruch genommen wird. Gleichzeitig werden individuelle Strategien von Geflüchteten und VersorgerInnen angewendet, um den genannten Herausforderungen zu begegnen., **Background** Refugees and asylum seekers face a variety of legal, structural, administrative, cultural and linguistic barriers in accessing healthcare. However, there is currently a lack of available data on the health needs of refugees and asylum seekers. In particular, their subjective experience in accessing healthcare has not been considered sufficiently. **Aim of the study** This paper explores the subjective experiences of refugees and asylum seekers in accessing and using healthcare. Strategies for dealing with potential challenges are presented. **Methods** The recruitment of interview partners was based on a quantitative cross-sectional study collected as part of a study on the health of refugees (FlüGe health study). Persons who agreed to be contacted again were contacted by telephone. A heterogeneous sub-sample (n = 18) with regard to age, gender, nationality, health status and utilisation behaviour was interviewed using interpreter-supported problem-centred interviews. Data were analysed using a deductive–inductive approach. **Results and discussion** The migration-insensitive healthcare for refugees and asylum seekers is characterised by language barriers, disorientation, experiences of rejection, mistreatment and structural barriers. Experiences of foreignness in the healthcare system can lead to delayed care seeking or underusage of healthcare systems. At the same time, individual strategies by refugees, asylum seekers and healthcare providers are used in order to meet these challenges.

Background: Strengthening individual health literacy and knowledge about health challenges are important preventive approaches in public health to improve health equality. Health care organizations have come into focus in this regard. They need to raise their organizational health literacy (OHL) to help users to access and navigate information and services. Objective: In Germany, public health departments (PHDs) are responsible for public and environmental health at the population level. This study breaks new ground as it is the first to investigate the OHL of these health care organizations. The study attempts to answer what barriers keep them from raising their OHL and how can these be overcome? Methods: In this explorative study, 10 guideline-oriented interviews with experts from PHDs were conducted in two states in Germany. Qualitative content analysis was used to extract the results from the experts´ statements. Key Results: Eleven barriers to raising OHL were identified. Obstacles were found in leadership and organizational culture, design and implementation of information, and in human resources. False expectations due to negative preconceptions about public service were identified as a new barrier that had not been elucidated in prior literature. The same applies to lack of cooperation on cross-sectoral topics as well as lack of accessibility. Clear communication of tasks and clear jurisdictional authority are some of the recommendations for lowering these barriers. Other examples include identifying and using synergies and involvement of target groups. Conclusions: Overcoming these obstacles could improve the OHL of German PHDs. This, in turn, could improve the health of the general population and thus contribute significantly to overall public health. Extrapolating to the whole of Germany and other countries could further strengthen research on OHL. [ HLRP: Health Literacy Research and Practice. 2021;5(3):e264–e271.] Plain Language Summary: Public health departments (PHDs) must be able to help their users access, understand, and use health information and services. This competence is called organizational health literacy (OHL). Ten experts from German PHDs were interviewed about barriers to raising OHL. This article reports the barriers identified and recommendations for lowering them, as well as three previously unknown obstacles.

Background: Refugees and asylum seekers have a high prevalence of psychiatric disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety and depression. Associations between the number of traumatic events and psychiatric disorders have been reported in literature, but knowledge on the influence of post-migration stressors on mental health outcomes in host countries remains scarce. Method: Four databases in the field of public and mental health were systematically searched. From a total of 2,456 studies found, 1,777 were included for title and abstract screening and 61 full texts were separately screened for eligibility by 2 authors. Out of these studies, 23 studies were included in this systematic review. A narrative synthesis was undertaken.Results: The overall findings showed that post-migration stressors have a significant impact on mental health outcomes. Especially uncertain legal status, missing social support and unemployment were shown to negatively influence mental health, but results vary among the different psychiatric disorders, i.e. post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and anxiety. Discussion: Post-migration stressors can contribute to the high prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders in refugees in European high-income countries. However, results must be interpreted with caution because of the heterogeneous study populations included and the variety of post-migration stressors. None of the studies considered the effect of mental disorders on the perceived severity of post-migration stressors.

ZIEL DER STUDIE: Umweltrisikofaktoren haben häufig eine hohe gesundheitliche Relevanz mit einem großen und z. T. nicht ausreichend genutzten Präventionspotenzial. Das Wissen über die komplexen Wirkungszusammenhänge zwischen Umwelt und Gesundheit ist für einige Umweltrisikofaktoren begrenzt. Ein Instrument, das bestehende Evidenz nutzt, um die gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen für eine Bevölkerung oder Bevölkerungsgruppe zu quantifizieren, ist das Konzept der umweltbedingten Krankheitslast (Environmental Burden of Disease, EBD). Ziel des Beitrages ist es, das Konzept der umweltbedingten Krankheitslast vorzustellen sowie den Nutzen aber auch die Kritikpunkte zu benennen. METHODIK: EBD fasst Morbiditäts- und Mortalitätsdaten in einem Summenmaß, dem Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY), zusammen und ermöglicht eine vergleichende Darstellung von Krankheitslasten. Hierfür werden Lebensjahre als Einheit genutzt. Mithilfe des attributablen Anteils kann ermittelt werden, welcher Anteil der Gesamtkrankheitslast auf umweltbedingte Risikofaktoren zurückzuführen ist. ERGEBNISSE: Das EBD-Konzept wird, trotz seiner zunehmenden Anwendung im internationalen Raum, häufig kritisch diskutiert, da die Einschränkung des mehrdimensionalen Konstrukts Gesundheit in einer Maßzahl zusammengefasst wird. Weitere Kritik bezieht sich auf die sozialen und normativen Konventionen, die das Konzept beinhaltet. Fehlende oder unzureichende Eingangsdaten können zudem die Qualität und Aussagekraft von EBD-Schätzungen limitieren. SCHLUSSFOLGERUNG: Es bedarf eines wissenschaftlichen Diskurses, in welchem Rahmen das Konzept in Deutschland genutzt werden kann und sollte. GOAL OF THE STUDY: Environmental risk factors are of great importance for public health with a considerable but often unused potential for prevention. However, knowledge about the complex associations between the environment and health effects is limited for some risk factors. A concept, which is using the existing evidence on associations between the impact of environmental factors and health effects, is the environmental burden of disease (EBD) concept. The aim of this article is to present the quantification method of the EBD concept and to discuss the advantages and its points of criticism. METHODS: The EBD concept combines morbidity and mortality data in a single measure (Disability-Adjusted Life Year, DALY) to enable a comparative description of the burden of disease. Life years are used as measurement unit. The environmental share of the total DALYs is quantified by using the attributable fraction. RESULTS: Despite its increasing application especially in the international context, the method is still criticized, because by summarizing the complex construct of health in one single measurement unit, much important information about quality of life is lost. A further criticism refers to partly arbitrarily set social value choices. Additionally, missing or insufficient data can limit the quality and validity of EBD estimations. CONCLUSION: A scientific discourse is needed to decide to what extent the EBD approach can and should be used in Germany.

Background To master challenges to their environmental health, people have to have health literacy (HL). At a national and communal level, focus is shifting from individual HL to health care organizations. They have to raise their organizational health literacy (OHL) to help their users to access information and services. In Germany, public health departments are responsible for environmental health at a population level while the environmental administration is responsible for health-related environmental protection. To date, there is no research on the OHL of public health departments in Germany. Which are the barriers that keep public health organizations from raising their OHL as well as from making better use of possible synergies with the environmental administration? Methods The study consisted of interviews with experts from public health (n = 7) and environmental departments (n = 5) at communal (n = 8) up to federal state level (n = 4). Experts were asked for their insight on barriers for OHL as well as for cross-sector collaboration. They were selected for a wide range in socioeconomic factors and administrative levels. The interviews were recorded between 10/2018-04/2019. After transcription the anonymized interviews underwent qualitative content analysis. Results In twelve interviews 10.4 h of audio were recorded. Content analysis revealed 13 barriers for OHL. Several of those had been described for hospitals before while others, like low responsiveness to the needs of the public, were unknown so far. Preliminary results also indicated several barriers for cross-sectoral cooperation as well as recommendations to overcome said barriers. Conclusions Interviews with public health and environmental administrative organizations turned up 13 barriers that keep them from raising their OHL. Implementing preliminary recommendations could result in better cooperation, in higher OHL, higher environmental health and therefore contribute to public health in the general population. Key messages Interviews with experts from public health and environmental administrative organizations in Germany turned up barriers that keep them from raising both their OHL and cross-sectoral cooperation. Implementing preliminary recommendations could result in higher OHL of public health departments and higher environmental health of the general public and thus contribute greatly to public health.

Zusammenfassung Der dritte Teil des DGP-Positionspapiers stellt den aktuellen Wissensstand zu bislang weniger untersuchten Gesundheitsgefährdungen durch Luftschadstoffe vor: gestörte Glukosetoleranz und Diabetes sowie neurodegenerative Erkrankungen und neurokognitive Entwicklung bei Kindern. Weiterhin wird die Bedeutung einer Exposition während der Schwangerschaft für Mutter und Kind beschrieben und abschließend in die derzeit diskutierten Mechanismen zur Erklärung der unterschiedlichen adversen Effekte von Luftschadstoffen eingeführt. Verschiedene, sich oft ergänzende Pathomechanismen bilden die Grundlage für die unterschiedlichen, durch Luftschadstoffe bedingten Gesundheitseffekte. Oxidativer Stress und eine subklinische entzündliche Reaktion in der Lunge, aber auch auf systemischer Ebene („low-grade systemic inflammation“), stehen dabei im Mittelpunkt. Diese begünstigen sekundäre Veränderungen im Organismus wie vaskuläre oder metabolische Prozesse und können darüber hinaus zu epigenetischen Effekten oder zur „Neuroinflammation“ führen. Die Bedeutung von löslichen, systemisch verfügbaren Partikelbestandteilen aber auch die Translokation von ultrafeinen Partikeln aus der Lunge über die Blutbahn in sekundäre Zielorgane wie Leber, Gehirn oder den Fötus wird dabei intensiv diskutiert. Diabetes mellitus ist eine der häufigsten chronischen Erkrankungen weltweit, mit einer Prävalenz von knapp 14 % in Deutschland. Bei dem mit großem Abstand häufigeren Typ 2-Diabetes mellitus spielen Lebensstilfaktoren bei der Genese eine wesentliche Rolle. Toxikologische und epidemiologische Studien legen darüber hinaus nahe, dass auch eine langfristige Luftschadstoffbelastung zu einem erhöhten Risiko v. a. für den Typ 2-Diabetes beitragen kann. Zusätzliche Hinweise für eine ursächliche Rolle liefern Studien zur Glukoseregulation, der Insulinsensitivität und dem Schwangerschaftsdiabetes. Ergebnisse experimenteller Studien unterstützen diese Zusammenhänge und zeigen plausible biologische Mechanismen auf. Jedoch sind zur Stärkung der gegenwärtigen Evidenz prospektive Studien mit Berücksichtigung multipler Lebensstil- und Umweltfaktoren wie Grünflächen oder Lärm und einer präziseren individuellen Abschätzung der Schadstoffbelastung notwendig. Mit der Altersentwicklung in der Bevölkerung nimmt die Krankheitslast durch neurodegenerative Erkrankungen zu. Erste Studien weisen auf einen möglichen Beitrag durch Luftschadstoffe, v. a. durch Feinstaub, hin. So wird in einigen Studien bei einer erhöhten Schadstoffbelastung eine Abnahme der neurokognitiven Leistungsfähigkeit im Erwachsenenalter und ein erhöhtes Risiko für eine Demenz oder eine Alzheimer-Erkrankung beobachtet, jedoch sind die Studien in Bezug auf Design, Expositionsabschätzung und Gesundheitseffekt noch inhomogen und die Studienergebnisse insgesamt gesehen noch inkonsistent. In Bezug auf die neurokognitive Entwicklung im Kindesalter beschreiben erste Studien einen Zusammenhang zwischen dem Grad der Luftverschmutzung, z. B. an der Schule, und einer verzögerten kognitiven Entwicklung. Auch wenn die Evidenz für die verschiedenen biologischen Endpunkte während der Schwangerschaft noch sehr heterogen ist, weisen die Studien insgesamt auf einen negativen Einfluss der Luftschadstoffe auf den mütterlichen und fetalen Organismus hin. Die stärkste Evidenz liegt für ein verringertes Geburtsgewicht im Zusammenhang mit erhöhten Luftschadstoffen vor, allerdings mit relativ niedriger Effektgröße von im Mittel nur wenigen Gramm. Darüber hinaus kommt es zu einer erhöhten Häufigkeit von zu geringem Geburtsgewicht (, The third part of the DGP statement introduces the current body of knowledge on less studied health outcomes associated with exposure to ambient air pollution: the negative impact on metabolism leading to impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes as well as contribution to the development of neurodegenerative disorders and delayed cognitive function in children. Furthermore, prenatal exposure and adverse effects on mother and child are addressed. Finally, the currently discussed biological mechanisms underlying various health effects associated with exposure to air pollution are described.Differing, but often complementary biological mechanisms create the basis for the diverse health outcomes caused by air pollution. Oxidative stress and a subclinical inflammatory response in the lungs and on a systemic level ("low-grade systemic inflammation") are considered to be key mechanisms. They promote secondary alterations in the body, such as vascular or metabolic processes, and may also result in the currently studied epigenetic phenomena or neuroinflammation. In this context, the health significance of soluble particulate matter and the role of ultrafine particles translocated across biological membranes into blood vessel and transported via the circulation to secondary target organs, such as liver, brain or the fetus, are intensively discussed.Diabetes is one of the leading chronic diseases worldwide, with a prevalence of almost 14 % in Germany. Although lifestyle factors are the main causes, current evidence suggests that long-term exposure to air pollution may additionally increase the risk for type 2 diabetes. Supporting evidence for a causal role of air pollution is provided by studies addressing the regulation of the blood glucose levels in metabolically healthy participants, insulin sensitivity, or pregnancy-related diabetes. Experimental studies provide further support for plausible biological mechanisms. However, prospective studies are needed to gain more evidence, taking multiple lifestyle and environmental factors, such as green space and noise, and an improved individual exposure assessment into account.The aging population has an increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases. First studies point towards a contribution of chronic exposure to air pollution, specifically by particulate matter. Several studies report its association with decreased neurocognitive capacity or an increased prevalence of dementia or Alzheimer's disease in adults. However, the studies are inhomogeneous regarding design, exposure and outcome, leading to inconsistent results. With respect to the influence on neurocognitive development of children, first studies suggest an association between the level of air pollution, e. g. at school, and delayed cognitive development.Even though the evidence for the different biological endpoints during pregnancy is still heterogeneous, the studies generally point towards an adverse impact of air pollution on the maternal and fetal organisms. The strongest evidence exists for low birth weight, with small effect sizes of only some grams, and for a higher incidence of reduced birth weight (

Issue With most humans, globally, now living in cities, “Urban Health” receives increasing attention. For sustainably securing and promoting human health in the urban setting, a multitude of urban systems, fierce dynamics, and systemic interactions need to be considered. The goal is to provide an integrative view of Sustainable Urban Health (SUH), i.e. capturing the “forest” instead of merely the “trees”. How is this possible, and what insights can be derived? A theory-based SUH approach, starting out from the Human ecology perspective, provides a framework which is compatible with WHO’s Healthy Cities approach. Methods Methods used include literature searches and managed cooperation, proceeding from a model exercise (published paper) to a full-scale book publication, thus building bridges across disciplines and societal sectors. Results As for results, there is a comprehensive account of Hamburg SUH, including history, health status, governance, health care, rehabilitation, prevention and health promotion, “health in all policies” (e.g. economics, housing, mobility), and current integrative community projects. 100 authors delivered c.70 contributions. Activities around “health” are shown to constitute a remarkable element of urban culture, with room for improvement, e.g. concerning quality assurance on a systems level; more focus on sustainability (incl. environmental impact and overall future-proofing); and safeguarding relevant sources as a “collective memory”. To take the issue forward in civic society, one venerable Hamburg NGO (founded in 1765) now established a SUH working group. Conclusions The intensity and diversity as well as certain catch-up needs of SUH in a European metropolis are demonstrated. This “no regrets” approach meets with interest also in civic society. Once it is applied in multiple cities, innovative concepts and efforts can be compared easily, and get locally adjusted, for further strengthening SUH. Key messages Sustainable Urban Health (SUH), based on Human ecology, is an integrative “no regrets” approach and can cooperatively be applied anywhere, informing and guiding professionals and civic society. Even where activities around “health” constitute a remarkable element of urban culture, there is room for improvement, e.g. quality assurance on systems level, and more focus on sustainability.

city. The meta-analysis suggested that a cooling effect of 2.5 K (CI 95% 1.9-3.2 K, p

Background: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV) have decreased nasopharyngeal carriage of vaccine types but little data exist from rural areas. We investigated bacterial density, serotype distribution and antibiotic resistance of pneumococcal strains within the nasopharynx of young children in the Peruvian Andes, 2 years after PCV7 was introduced. Methods: Pneumococcal strains were isolated from a subset of 125 children from our Peruvian cohort, who entered the study in 2009 and had pneumococcus detected in the nasopharynx in both 2009 and during follow-up in 2011. Strains were Quellung serotyped and tested for susceptibility to antibiotics. Bacterial density was determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Results: The prevalence of PCV7 strains decreased from 48% in 2009 to 28.8% in 2011, whereas non-PCV7 types increased from 52% to 71.2% (P = 0.002). There was a 3.5-fold increase in carriage of serotype 6C in 2011 (P = 0.026). Vaccination with PCV7 did not affect pneumococcal density in children colonized by a PCV7 type but did increase density in those colonized with a non-PCV7 type. Antibiotic resistance did not change after vaccine introduction; strains were nonsusceptible to tetracycline (97.2%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (56.4%), penicillin (34%), erythromycin (22.4%), chloramphenicol (18.8%) and clindamycin (12.4%). Conclusions: Serotype replacement was observed post-PCV7 vaccination with a concomitant, not previously recognized, increased nasopharyngeal density.

BACKGROUND: Artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the world's largest anthropogenic source of mercury emission. Gold miners are highly exposed to metallic mercury and suffer occupational mercury intoxication. The global disease burden as a result of this exposure is largely unknown because the informal character of ASGM restricts the availability of reliable data. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of occupational mercury intoxication and the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) attributable to chronic metallic mercury vapor intoxication (CMMVI) among ASGM gold miners globally and in selected countries. METHODS: Estimates of the number of artisanal small-scale gold (ASG) miners were extracted from reviews supplemented by a literature search. Prevalence of moderate CMMVI among miners was determined by compiling a dataset of available studies that assessed frequency of intoxication in gold miners using a standardized diagnostic tool and biomonitoring data on mercury in urine. Severe cases of CMMVI were not included because it was assumed that these persons can no longer be employed as miners. Cases in workers' families and communities were not considered. Years lived with disability as a result of CMMVI among ASG miners were quantified by multiplying the number of prevalent cases of CMMVI by the appropriate disability weight. No deaths are expected to result from CMMVI and therefore years of life lost were not calculated. Disease burden was calculated by multiplying the prevalence rate with the number of miners for each country and the disability weight. Sensitivity analyses were performed using different assumptions on the number of miners and the intoxication prevalence rate. FINDINGS: Globally, 14-19 million workers are employed as ASG miners. Based on human biomonitoring data, between 25% and 33% of these miners-3.3-6.5 million miners globally-suffer from moderate CMMVI. The resulting global burden of disease is estimated to range from 1.22 (uncertainty interval [UI] 0.87-1.61) to 2.39 (UI 1.69-3.14) million DALYs. CONCLUSIONS: This study presents the first global and country-based estimates of disease burden caused by mercury intoxication in ASGM. Data availability and quality limit the results, and the total disease burden is likely undercounted. Despite these limitations, the data clearly indicate that mercury intoxication in ASG miners is a major, largely neglected global health problem.

In artisanal small-scale gold mining, mercury is used for gold-extraction, putting miners and nearby residents at risk of chronic metallic mercury vapor intoxication (CMMVI). Burden of disease (BoD) analyses allow the estimation of the public health relevance of CMMVI, but until now there have been no specific CMMVI disability weights (DWs). The objective is to derive DWs for moderate and severe CMMVI. Disease-specific and generic health state descriptions of 18 diseases were used in a pairwise comparison survey. Mercury and BoD experts were invited to participate in an online survey. Data were analyzed using probit regression. Local regression was used to make the DWs comparable to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study. Alternative survey (visual analogue scale) and data analyses approaches (linear interpolation) were evaluated in scenario analyses. A total of 105 participants completed the questionnaire. DWs for moderate and severe CMMVI were 0.368 (0.261-0.484) and 0.588 (0.193-0.907), respectively. Scenario analyses resulted in higher mean values. The results are limited by the sample size, group of interviewees, questionnaire extent, and lack of generally accepted health state descriptions. DWs were derived to improve the data basis of mercury-related BoD estimates, providing useful information for policy-making. Integration of the results into the GBD DWs enhances comparability.

Background: The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study is designed to give a comprehensive and standardized assessment of the health of populations around the world. It measures the burden of disease by considering years of life lost due to premature death as well as years lived with disability. The findings enable the identification of secular trends and disparities between countries and can serve as a basis for decision-making in health policy. Methods: In cooperation with the authors of the GBD study, we summarize the key methods used to assess the burden of disease in terms of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). We present findings that specifically pertain to Germany, drawn from freely available data of the most recent round of analysis for the years 1990 and 2010. Results: According to the GBD study, life expectancy in Germany rose from 75.4 years in 1990 to 80.2 years in 2010. Ischemic heart disease and back pain caused the largest number of DALYs lost (2.5 million and 2.1 million, respectively). Over the period of the study, the absolute number of DALYs due to ischemic heart disease dropped by 33%, while the number of DALYs due to low back pain rose by 11%. Nutrition-related risks ranked first among all risk factors considered, accounting for 13.8% of total DALYs, followed by high blood pressure and high body-mass index, accounting for 10.9% each. Conclusion: In Germany, important changes have been seen over time in the burden of disease attributable to different chronic diseases. Some of these changes reflect the successful interventions of the past, while others indicate a need for new action. The data from Germany that went into the GBD study must be systematically assessed and supplemented by further data relating to questions of specific relevance in this country.

Background Artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is a poverty-driven activity practiced in over 70 countries worldwide. Zimbabwe is amongst the top ten countries using large quantities of mercury to extract gold from ore. This analysis was performed to check data availability and derive a preliminary estimate of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) due to mercury use in ASGM in Zimbabwe. Methods Cases of chronic mercury intoxication were identified following an algorithm using mercury-related health effects and mercury in human specimens. The sample prevalence amongst miners and controls (surveyed by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization in 2004 and the University of Munich in 2006) was determined and extrapolated to the entire population of Zimbabwe. Further epidemiological and demographic data were taken from the literature and missing data modeled with DisMod II to quantify DALYs using the methods from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2004 update published by the World Health Organization (WHO). While there was no disability weight (DW) available indicating the relative disease severity of chronic mercury intoxication, the DW of a comparable disease was assigned by following the criteria 1) chronic condition, 2) triggered by a substance, and 3) causing similar health symptoms. Results Miners showed a sample prevalence of 72% while controls showed no cases of chronic mercury intoxication. Data availability is very limited why it was necessary to model data and make assumptions about the number of exposed population, the definition of chronic mercury intoxication, DW, and epidemiology. If these assumptions hold, the extrapolation would result in around 95,400 DALYs in Zimbabwe’s total population in 2004. Conclusions This analysis provides a preliminary quantification of the mercury-related health burden from ASGM based on the limited data available. If the determined assumptions hold, chronic mercury intoxication is likely to have been one of the top 20 hazards for population health in Zimbabwe in 2004 when comparing with more than 130 categories of diseases and injuries quantified in the WHO’s GBD 2004 update. Improving data quality would allow more accurate estimates. However, the results highlight the need to reduce a burden which could be entirely avoided. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1476-069X-13-111) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

BACKGROUND: Demographic change is a driving force of disease burden. The German population is aging and simultaneously shrinking, due to a rising life expectancy and a declining fertility rate. North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) is the most populous federal state of Germany including the Ruhr metropolitan area. The NRW population is expected to shrink by 2.5% until 2025, the population of the Ruhr area by 9.5%. At the same time, the population forecast predicts a growth of 30% in the age group > or =55 years for NRW. METHODS: The 'burden of disease' approach of the World Health Organisation (WHO) summarizes the health status of populations. This approach was used to predict the regional disease burden in 2025 by calculating disability adjusted life years (DALY) as the sum of life years lost due to premature death and years lived with disability due to selected diseases. Our projection included selected tumours, myocardial infarction (MI) and dementia. RESULTS: For the Ruhr area, increases in DALYs are expected for all causes studied, i.e. selected tumours (20%), MI (17%) and dementia (36%). The increase in the Ruhr area was estimated to be proportionally lower than in NRW in total, but the disease burden per inhabitant is higher. CONCLUSION: The population shrinking is no cure for 'Ruhr City'. The projection of disease burden shows that health status will decrease due to the demographic change. DALY estimates show the potential health gains, which can be won by implementing measures to reduce premature deaths and to prevent new cases.

Introduction: Clinical environmental medicine deals with environmental effects on human health in individual patients. Patients seek medical advice for problems of many different kinds that may be due to environmental exposures; such exposures must be considered carefully along with other potential causes. An environmental medical assessment should include thorough medical history-taking and physical examination, the formulation of a differential diagnosis, and (whenever indicated) human biomonitoring, site inspections, and ambient monitoring. Methods: This review of clinically relevant environment-related health disturbances is based on a selective evaluation of the pertinent literature and of own experiences. Results: Overall, relevant environmental exposures can be identified in up to 15% of patients who attribute their health complaints to environmental factors. (Clinical disorders are more common and more severe in these patients.) 40% to 75% are found to suffer from other physical and/or emotional conditions without any specific environmental aspect, i.e., without any apparent or verifiable exposure. Discussion: Despite the relative rarity of verifiable environmentally related health disturbances, these must be clearly identified and delimited to avoid further harmful exposures. Environmental medical counseling should include risk assessment and behavior recommendations for all patients who attribute their medical problems to their environment. Physicians performing specific environmental-medical diagnostic procedures must be aware of their limitations in order to avoid performing tests whose results have no therapeutic consequences and are thus of no help to either the physician or the patient.

Background: It is unclear which exposures may cause or modify the adverse effect of rapid weight gain on fat mass development in term children whose birth weight is appropriate-for-gestational age (AGA). Objective: To determine which intrauterine or postnatal exposures increase the risk of or modify the effect of rapid weight gain on body fat percentage (BF%) and body mass index (BMI) trajectories between 2 and 6 y of age. Design: Term AGA singletons (n = 370) from the German Multicenter Allergy Study (MAS-90), a longitudinal birth cohort study, with repeated anthropometric measurements until 6 y, and data on breastfeeding status, exposure to smoking during pregnancy, and maternal anthropometric and socioeconomic characteristics were included in this analysis. Results: A shorter gestation [multivariate-adjusted odds ratio (OR): 5.12; 95% CI: 2.22, 11.82; P = 0.0001], being firstborn (OR: 2.01; 95% CI: 1.10, 3.69; P = 0.02), and having been bottle-fed (OR: 3.02; 95% CI: 1.68, 5.43; P = 0.0002) all significantly increased a child's risk of gaining weight rapidly, whereas a larger BMI at birth was protective (OR: 0.54; 95% CI: 0.38, 0.77; P = 0.0006). Multilevel model analyses showed that rapid growers exposed to tobacco in utero subsequently gained more BF% between 2 and 6 y than did rapid growers who had not been exposed ((3 SE: 0.78 +/- 0.28%/y; P = 0.005). Similarly, change in BF% was greater in rapid growers with an overweight mother than in those with a normal-weight mother (1.01 +/- 0.30%/y; P = 0.0007). Conclusions: The occurrence of rapid weight gain between birth and 2 y and the magnitude of its effect on BF% development in AGA children is influenced by both intrauterine and postnatal exposures.

Background: It is not clear whether the adverse effects of rapid weight gain in infancy are modified by nutrition during the first 2 y of life in term children whose birth weight was appropriate for gestational age (AGA). Objective: We examined the interaction between rapid weight gain and nutrition in infancy and early childhood and their effect on body fat percentage (BF%) trajectories between 2 and 5 y of age. Design: The study population comprised 249 (51.4% female) term AGA participants of the Dortmund Nutritional and Anthropometric Longitudinally Designed Study, for whom repeated anthropometric measurements until 5 y of age and information on breastfeeding status and on diet at 12 and 18-24 mo of age were available. Results: Multilevel model analyses showed that, among rapid growers, those who had been fully breastfed for >= 4 mo had a lower BF% at 2 y of age than did those who had not been fully breastfed for 4 mo (0 SE: -1.53 +/- 0.59%; P = 0.009). This difference persisted until 5 y. Furthermore, those rapid growers who had a consistently high fat intake at both 12 and 18-24 mo did not show the expected physiologic decrease in BF% between 2 and 5 y seen in those rapid growers with an inconsistent or consistently low fat intake at these time points (0.73 +/- 0.26%/y; P = 0.006). Conclusions: Among rapid growers, full breastfeeding for >= 4 mo is protective against a high BF% at 2 y of age, whereas a consistently high fat intake in the second year of life "inhibits" the physiologic decrease in BF% between 2 and 5 y.

Stomata have a key role in the regulation of gas exchange and water economy in higher plants1,2. During water stress, they close in response to abscisic acid (ABA), a hormonal stimulus thought to be released or produced de novo in the mesophyll of leaves3,4, and probably in the guard cells of the stomata themselves5. By a mechanism still unknown, ABA affects the ionic balance of guard cells, resulting in a loss of K+, their major osmotically active constituent1,6. The structural requirements for a compound to be physiologically active in this system are stringent7 and suggest a highly specific interaction of the hormone with its primary target site(s). Apart from two preliminary studies8,9, ABA binding has not been investigated in plant material. Using guard cell protoplasts10,11, we have now obtained evidence for the occurrence of high-affinity guard cell-specific ABA-binding proteins which are located at the plasmalemma of these cells with high density. In all characteristics examined, they bear the properties of ABA receptors.