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Objectives Racial and socioeconomic disparities in the incidence of Legionnaires’ disease have been documented for the past 2 decades; however, the social determinants of health (SDH) that contribute to these disparities are not well studied. The objective of this narrative review was to characterize SDH to inform efforts to reduce disparities in the incidence of Legionnaires’ disease. Methods We conducted a narrative review of articles published from January 1979 through October 2019 that focused on disparities in the incidence of Legionnaires’ disease and pneumonia (inclusive of bacterial pneumonia and/or community-acquired pneumonia) among adults and children (excluding articles that were limited to people aged Results Of the 19 articles reviewed, multiple articles examined disparities in incidence of Legionnaires’ disease and pneumonia related to economic stability/income (n = 13) and comorbidities (n = 10), and fewer articles incorporated SDH variables related to education (n = 3), social support (none), health care access (n = 1), and neighborhood and built environment (n = 6) in their analyses. Conclusions Neighborhood and built-environment factors such as housing, drinking water infrastructure, and pollutant exposures represent critical partnership and research opportunities. More research that incorporates SDH and multilevel, cross-sector interventions is needed to address disparities in Legionnaires’ disease incidence.

Objective To evaluate if facility-level vaccination after an initial vaccination clinic was independently associated with COVID-19 incidence adjusted for other factors in January 2021 among nursing home residents. Design Ecological analysis of data from the CDC's National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) and from the CDC's Pharmacy Partnership for Long-Term Care Program. Setting and Participants CMS-certified nursing homes participating in both NHSN and the Pharmacy Partnership for Long-Term Care Program. Methods A multivariable, random intercepts, negative binomial model was applied to contrast COVID-19 incidence rates among residents living in facilities with an initial vaccination clinic during the week ending January 3, 2021 (n = 2843), vs those living in facilities with no vaccination clinic reported up to and including the week ending January 10, 2021 (n = 3216). Model covariates included bed size, resident SARS-CoV-2 testing, staff with COVID-19, cumulative COVID-19 among residents, residents admitted with COVID-19, community county incidence, and county social vulnerability index (SVI). Results In December 2020 and January 2021, incidence of COVID-19 among nursing home residents declined to the lowest point since reporting began in May, diverged from the pattern in community cases, and began dropping before vaccination occurred. Comparing week 3 following an initial vaccination clinic vs week 2, the adjusted reduction in COVID-19 rate in vaccinated facilities was 27% greater than the reduction in facilities where vaccination clinics had not yet occurred (95% confidence interval: 14%-38%, P Conclusions and Implications Vaccination of residents contributed to the decline in COVID-19 incidence in nursing homes; however, other factors also contributed. The decline in COVID-19 was evident prior to widespread vaccination, highlighting the benefit of a multifaced approach to prevention including continued use of recommended screening, testing, and infection prevention practices as well as vaccination to keep residents in nursing homes safe.

Residents of long-term care facilities (LTCFs), particularly those in skilled nursing facilities (SNFs), have experienced disproportionately high levels of COVID-19-associated morbidity and mortality and were prioritized for early COVID-19 vaccination (1,2). However, this group was not included in COVID-19 vaccine clinical trials, and limited postauthorization vaccine effectiveness (VE) data are available for this critical population (3). It is not known how well COVID-19 vaccines protect SNF residents, who typically are more medically frail, are older, and have more underlying medical conditions than the general population (1). In addition, immunogenicity of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine was found to be lower in adults aged 65-85 years than in younger adults (4). Through the CDC Pharmacy Partnership for Long-Term Care Program, SNF residents and staff members in Connecticut began receiving the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine on December 18, 2020 (5). Administration of the vaccine was conducted during several on-site pharmacy clinics. In late January 2021, the Connecticut Department of Public Health (CT DPH) identified two SNFs experiencing COVID-19 outbreaks among residents and staff members that occurred after each facility's first vaccination clinic. CT DPH, in partnership with CDC, performed electronic chart review in these facilities to obtain information on resident vaccination status and infection with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. Partial vaccination, defined as the period from >14 days after the first dose through 7 days after the second dose, had an estimated effectiveness of 63% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 33%-79%) against SARS-CoV-2 infection (regardless of symptoms) among residents within these SNFs. This is similar to estimated effectiveness for a single dose of the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine in adults across a range of age groups in noncongregate settings (6) and suggests that to optimize vaccine impact among this population, high coverage with the complete 2-dose series should be recommended for SNF residents and staff members.

Background Monitoring of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) antibody prevalence can complement case reporting to inform more accurate estimates of SARS-CoV-2 infection burden, but few studies have undertaken repeated sampling over time on a broad geographic scale. Methods We performed serologic testing on a convenience sample of residual serum obtained from persons of all ages, at 10 sites in the United States from 23 March through 14 August 2020, from routine clinical testing at commercial laboratories. We standardized our seroprevalence rates by age and sex, using census population projections and adjusted for laboratory assay performance. Confidence intervals were generated with a 2-stage bootstrap. We used bayesian modeling to test whether seroprevalence changes over time were statistically significant. Results Seroprevalence remained below 10% at all sites except New York and Florida, where it reached 23.2% and 13.3%, respectively. Statistically significant increases in seroprevalence followed peaks in reported cases in New York, South Florida, Utah, Missouri, and Louisiana. In the absence of such peaks, some significant decreases were observed over time in New York, Missouri, Utah, and Western Washington. The estimated cumulative number of infections with detectable antibody response continued to exceed reported cases in all sites. Conclusions Estimated seroprevalence was low in most sites, indicating that most people in the United States had not been infected with SARS-CoV-2 as of July 2020. The majority of infections are likely not reported. Decreases in seroprevalence may be related to changes in healthcare-seeking behavior, or evidence of waning of detectable anti–SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels at the population level. Thus, seroprevalence estimates may underestimate the cumulative incidence of infection.

Provision of safe drinking water in the United States is a great public health achievement. However, new waterborne disease challenges have emerged (e.g., aging infrastructure, chlorine-tolerant and biofilm-related pathogens, increased recreational water use). Comprehensive estimates of the health burden for all water exposure routes (ingestion, contact, inhalation) and sources (drinking, recreational, environmental) are needed. We estimated total illnesses, emergency department (ED) visits, hospitalizations, deaths, and direct healthcare costs for 17 waterborne infectious diseases. About 7.15 million waterborne illnesses occur annually (95% credible interval [CrI] 3.88 million-12.0 million), results in 601,000 ED visits (95% CrI 364,000-866,000), 118,000 hospitalizations (95% CrI 86,800-150,000), and 6,630 deaths (95% CrI 4,520-8,870) and incurring US $3.33 billion (95% CrI 1.37 billion-8.77 billion) in direct healthcare costs. Otitis externa and norovirus infection were the most common illnesses. Most hospitalizations and deaths were caused by biofilm-associated pathogens (nontuberculous mycobacteria, Pseudomonas, Legionella), costing US $2.39 billion annually.

We compared severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 seroprevalence estimated from commercial laboratory residual sera and a community household survey in metropolitan Atlanta during April and May 2020 and found these 2 estimates to be similar (4.94% vs 3.18%). Compared with more representative surveys, commercial sera can provide an approximate measure of seroprevalence.

In October 2018, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention was notified of a cluster of Legionnaires’ disease cases in workers at a racetrack facility. The objective of the resulting investigation was to determine the extent of the outbreak and identify potential sources of exposure to halt transmission. Case-finding and interviews were conducted among symptomatic racetrack workers who were known to be at the facility within 14 days prior to symptom onset. An environmental assessment of the facility and surrounding area was conducted for sources of potential Legionella exposure. In total, 17 legionellosis cases were identified. The environmental assessment revealed a poorly maintained hot tub in the jockey locker room as the most likely source. Further investigation identified deficiencies in the facility’s ventilation systems, which suggested a transmission mechanism for workers who never entered the locker room floor. Considering indirect exposure routes via air handling systems can be useful for source identification and case-finding in legionellosis outbreaks.

Previous COVID-19 vaccine efficacy (VE) studies have estimated neutralizing and binding antibody concentrations that correlate with protection from symptomatic infection; how these estimates compare to those generated in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection is unclear. Here, we assessed quantitative neutralizing and binding antibody concentrations using standardized SARS-CoV-2 assays on 3,067 serum specimens collected during 27 July 2020 to 27 August 2020 from COVID-19-unvaccinated persons with detectable anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. Neutralizing and binding antibody concentrations were severalfold lower in the unvaccinated study population compared to published concentrations at 28 days postvaccination. In this convenience sample, ~88% of neutralizing and ~63 to 86% of binding antibody concentrations met or exceeded concentrations associated with 70% COVID-19 VE against symptomatic infection; ~30% of neutralizing and 1 to 14% of binding antibody concentrations met or exceeded concentrations associated with 90% COVID-19 VE. Our study not only supports observations of infection-induced immunity and current recommendations for vaccination postinfection to maximize protection against COVID-19, but also provides a large data set of pre-COVID-19 vaccination anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody concentrations that will serve as an important comparator in the current setting of vaccine-induced and hybrid immunity. As new SARS-CoV-2 variants emerge and displace circulating virus strains, we recommend that standardized binding antibody assays that include spike protein-based antigens be utilized to estimate antibody concentrations correlated with protection from COVID-19. These estimates will be helpful in informing public health guidance, such as the need for additional COVID-19 vaccine booster doses to prevent symptomatic infection.

Through the use of published estimates of medical costs and new calculations of productivity losses, we estimate the lifetime economic burden of 2014 Legionnaires’ disease cases in the United States at ≈$835 million. This total includes $21 million in productivity losses caused by absenteeism and $412 million in productivity losses caused by premature deaths.

Background The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), evolved rapidly in the United States. This report describes the demographic, clinical, and epidemiologic characteristics of 544 U.S. persons under investigation (PUI) for COVID-19 with complete SARS-CoV-2 testing in the beginning stages of the pandemic from January 17 through February 29, 2020. Methods In this surveillance cohort, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provided consultation to public health and healthcare professionals to identify PUI for SARS-CoV-2 testing by quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR. Demographic, clinical, and epidemiologic characteristics of PUI were reported by public health and healthcare professionals during consultation with on-call CDC clinicians and subsequent submission of a CDC PUI Report Form. Characteristics of laboratory-negative and laboratory-positive persons were summarized as proportions for the period of January 17−February 29, and characteristics of all PUI were compared before and after February 12 using prevalence ratios. Results A total of 36 PUI tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 and were classified as confirmed cases. Confirmed cases and PUI testing negative for SARS-CoV-2 had similar demographic, clinical, and epidemiologic characteristics. Consistent with changes in PUI evaluation criteria, 88% (13/15) of confirmed cases detected before February 12, 2020, reported travel from China. After February 12, 57% (12/21) of confirmed cases reported no known travel- or contact-related exposures. Conclusions These findings can inform preparedness for future pandemics, including capacity for rapid expansion of novel diagnostic tests to accommodate broad surveillance strategies to assess community transmission, including potential contributions from asymptomatic and presymptomatic infections.

Background Recent travel is associated with ~20% of reported Legionnaires’ disease (LD) cases worldwide. Methods We analyzed LD cases reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) during 2015–2016. Travel-associated cases met case criteria for confirmed LD in someone who spent ≥1 night away from home during the 10 days before symptom onset. Most analyses were limited to travel-associated, public accommodation stay (TAPAS) cases. We used reported travel dates to estimate the number of TAPAS cases acquired during travel. Results Of 12,200 LD cases reported among U.S. residents, 12.3% were travel-associated; 8.7% were TAPAS. Median patient age for TAPAS cases was 61 years; 64.4% were male; 67.3% were white; 77.9% were non-Hispanic; 96.1% were hospitalized; 4.5% died. Among 887 TAPAS cases involving U.S. destinations, an estimated 29.8% were acquired during travel; 4.28 TAPAS cases were reported, and an estimated 1.10 TAPAS cases were acquired during travel, per 10,000,000 hotel room nights booked. Sixty-eight U.S. TAPAS clusters were detected. Conclusions While acquisition during travel accounted for a relatively small proportion of all LD cases, clusters of TAPAS cases were frequently detected. Prompt notification of these cases to CDC facilitates cluster detection and expedites intervention.

Key Points Question What proportion of persons across 52 US jurisdictions had detectable antibodies against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from July to September 2020? Findings In this repeated, cross-sectional study of 177 919 residual clinical specimens, the estimated percentage of persons in a jurisdiction with detectable SARS-CoV-2 antibodies ranged from fewer than 1% to 23%. Over 4 sampling periods in 42 of 49 jurisdictions with calculated estimates, fewer than 10% of people had detectable SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. Meaning While SARS-CoV-2 antibody prevalence estimates varied widely across jurisdictions, most people in the US did not have evidence of previous SARS-CoV-2 infection., Importance Case-based surveillance of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection likely underestimates the true prevalence of infections. Large-scale seroprevalence surveys can better estimate infection across many geographic regions. Objective To estimate the prevalence of persons with SARS-CoV-2 antibodies using residual sera from commercial laboratories across the US and assess changes over time. Design, Setting, and Participants This repeated, cross-sectional study conducted across all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico used a convenience sample of residual serum specimens provided by persons of all ages that were originally submitted for routine screening or clinical management from 2 private clinical commercial laboratories. Samples were obtained during 4 collection periods: July 27 to August 13, August 10 to August 27, August 24 to September 10, and September 7 to September 24, 2020. Exposures Infection with SARS-CoV-2. Main Outcomes and Measures The proportion of persons previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 as measured by the presence of antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 by 1 of 3 chemiluminescent immunoassays. Iterative poststratification was used to adjust seroprevalence estimates to the demographic profile and urbanicity of each jurisdiction. Seroprevalence was estimated by jurisdiction, sex, age group (0-17, 18-49, 50-64, and ≥65 years), and metropolitan/nonmetropolitan status. Results Of 177 919 serum samples tested, 103 771 (58.3%) were from women, 26 716 (15.0%) from persons 17 years or younger, 47 513 (26.7%) from persons 65 years or older, and 26 290 (14.8%) from individuals living in nonmetropolitan areas. Jurisdiction-level seroprevalence over 4 collection periods ranged from less than 1% to 23%. In 42 of 49 jurisdictions with sufficient samples to estimate seroprevalence across all periods, fewer than 10% of people had detectable SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. Seroprevalence estimates varied between sexes, across age groups, and between metropolitan/nonmetropolitan areas. Changes from period 1 to 4 were less than 7 percentage points in all jurisdictions and varied across sites. Conclusions and Relevance This cross-sectional study found that as of September 2020, most persons in the US did not have serologic evidence of previous SARS-CoV-2 infection, although prevalence varied widely by jurisdiction. Biweekly nationwide testing of commercial clinical laboratory sera can play an important role in helping track the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the US., This cross-sectional study examines the prevalence of persons with SARS-CoV-2 antibodies across the US and changes from July to September 2020.

Background: Water management programs (WMPs) are needed to minimize the growth and transmission of opportunistic pathogens in healthcare facility water systems. In 2017, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Service (CMS) began requiring that certified hospitals in the United States have water management policies and procedures; in response, the National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) Annual Hospital Survey included new, voluntary questions on practices regarding water management and monitoring. Of 4,929 hospitals surveyed in 2017, 3,821 (77.5%) reported having a WMP. Of these 3,821 facilities, 86.9% reported regular monitoring of water temperature; 66.2% monitored disinfectant (eg, residual chlorine); 63.1% used specific tests for Legionella; and 35.6% performed heterotrophic plate counts (HPCs). We analyzed new, 2018 hospital survey data to assess further progress toward meeting CMS requirements for WMPs. Methods: We analyzed 2018 NHSN Annual Hospital Survey responses for facilities that reported on WMPs in 2017. Responses included information regarding risk assessments for Legionella and other waterborne pathogens as well as details regarding WMP teams and water-monitoring practices. WMP team members were categorized as administrative (hospital administrator, compliance officer, risk or quality management), epidemiology or infection control (epidemiologist or infection preventionist, other clinical), or environmental or facilities (consultant, facility manager or engineer, equipment or chemical supplier, maintenance). Statistical significance was assessed using the McNemar test, where appropriate. Results: Of hospitals reporting on WMPs in 2017, 4,087 of 4,929 (83%) responded again in 2018. The proportion of facilities that reported having a WMP increased from 3,258 of 4,087 (79.7%) in 2017 to 3,647 of 4,087 (89.2%) in 2018 (P < .0001). Of the 3,647 hospitals that reported having a WMP in 2018, 95.9% had conducted a risk assessment for waterborne pathogens; 67.3% of these facilities had most recently done so within 1 year of the survey. WMP teams had representation from environmental or facilities staff at 98.8% of hospitals, epidemiology or infection control staff at 89.8% of hospitals, and administrative staff at 71.7% of hospitals. Of facilities with WMPs in 2018, 90.5% reported regular monitoring of water temperature, 72.2% disinfectant, 67.4% tests for Legionella, and 48.8% HPCs. Conclusions: More hospitals reported having a WMP in 2018 than 2017. However, ~1 in 10 respondents lacked a WMP. Differences in water monitoring practices across facilities potentially reflect a lack of standardization in how WMPs are implemented. Some hospital WMPs do not incorporate routine monitoring of water temperature and disinfectant, which is a basic practice. CDC continues to develop tools, resources, and training to support facility WMP teams in meeting CMS requirements and protecting patients from water-associated pathogens.Funding: NoneDisclosures: None

Detection of clusters of Legionnaires’ disease, a leading waterborne cause of pneumonia, is challenging. Clusters vary in size and scope, are associated with a diverse range of aerosol-producing devices, including exposures such as whirlpool spas and hotel water systems typically associated with travel, and can occur without an easily identified exposure source. Recently, jurisdictions have begun to use SaTScan spatio-temporal analysis software prospectively as part of routine cluster surveillance. We used data collected by the Active Bacterial Core surveillance platform to assess the ability of SaTScan to detect Legionnaires’ disease clusters. We found that SaTScan analysis using traditional surveillance data and geocoded residential addresses was unable to detect many common Legionnaires’ disease cluster types, such as those associated with travel or a prolonged time between cases. Additionally, signals from an analysis designed to simulate a real-time search for clusters did not align with clusters identified by traditional surveillance methods or a retrospective SaTScan analysis. A geospatial analysis platform better tailored to the unique characteristics of Legionnaires’ disease epidemiology would improve cluster detection and decrease time to public health action.

Introduction The National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) Hemovigilance Module (HM) collects data on the frequency, severity, and imputability of transfusion-associated adverse events. These events contribute to significant morbidity and mortality among transfusion patients. We report results from the first systematic assessment of eight attributes of the HM. Materials and methods Standard methods were used to assess the HM. Evaluation data included training materials, system modification history, and facility survey information. A concordance analysis was performed using data from the Baystate Medical Center's (Springfield, MA) electronic transfusion reporting system. Results In 2016, system representativeness remained low, with 6% (277 of 4690) of acute care facilities across 43 jurisdictions enrolled in the HM. In 2016, 48% (2147 of 4453) and 89% (3969 of 4,453) of adverse reactions were reported within 30 and 90 days of the reaction date, respectively, compared to 21% (109 of 511) and 56% (284 of 511) in 2010, demonstrating improved reporting timeliness. Data quality from most reactions was adequate, with 10% (45 of 442) misclassified transfusion-associated circulatory overload reactions, and no incomplete transfusion-transmitted infection data reported from 2010 to 2013. When compared to the Baystate system to assess concordance, 43% (24 of 56) of NHSN-reported febrile reactions were captured in both systems (unweighted kappa value, 0.47; confidence interval, 0.33-0.61). Conclusion Since the 2010 HM pilot, improvements have led to enhanced simplicity, timeliness, and strengthened data quality. The HM serves an important and unique role despite incomplete adoption nationwide. Facility efforts to track and prevent transfusion-associated adverse events through systems like the NHSN HM are a key step toward improving transfusion safety in the United States.

Background In October 2018, the West Virginia Bureau for Public Health (BPH) notified CDC of one Legionella urinary antigen test (UAT)-positive case of Legionnaires’ disease (LD) in a worker at a racetrack facility. Following investigation by BPH and the county health department, five additional LD cases were identified among facility workers within a one-month period. Our objective was to determine the extent of the outbreak and identify potential sources of exposure. Methods We interviewed the previously identified patients and conducted case-finding among racetrack workers. Our case definitions included confirmed LD (pneumonia with a positive UAT), suspected LD (pneumonia without a UAT completed), and Pontiac fever (PF) (self-limited, nonspecific flu-like symptoms) among employees with exposure to the facility within 14 days prior to symptom onset. We conducted an environmental assessment of the facility and the surrounding area for sources of potential Legionella exposure. Results We identified 17 cases (71% in men, 35% in current smokers, median age 55 years): six confirmed LD, four suspected LD, and seven suspected PF cases. Our environmental assessment revealed a poorly maintained hot tub in the first floor jockey area. All samples collected from the hot tub (which was chlorinated before our arrival) tested negative for Legionella. Two employees with confirmed LD (33%), three with suspected LD (75%), and six with suspected PF (86%) had direct exposure to the hot tub or adjacent hallway; the remaining six were exposed only to a second floor office suite. Further investigation identified deficiencies in the facility’s ventilation systems and a crack in the floor between the hot tub and office areas. These factors created a pathway for Legionella-containing aerosols from the hot tub to pass into the second floor office space and air-handling unit for recirculation to occupied areas. Conclusion Our investigation suggests that both direct and indirect exposure to a Legionella reservoir can cause illness. This finding supports analysis of ventilation systems and airflow dynamics in future LD outbreak investigations. Clinicians should consider LD in pneumonia patients with direct or indirect exposure to suspected Legionella sources to ensure appropriate testing and treatment. Disclosures All authors: No reported disclosures.

Objectives Multiple invasive group A Streptococcus (GAS) infections were reported to public health by a skilled nursing facility (facility A) in Illinois between May 2014 and August 2016. Cases continued despite interventions including antibiotic prophylaxis for all residents and staff. Two other geographically close facilities reported contemporaneous outbreaks of GAS. We investigated potential reasons for ongoing transmission. Methods We obtained epidemiologic data from chart review of cases and review of facility and public health records from previous investigations into the outbreak. Infection control practices at facility A were observed and evaluated. Whole genome sequencing followed by phylogenetic analysis was performed on available isolates from the three facilities. Results From 2014 to 2016, 19 invasive and 60 noninvasive GAS infections were identified at facility A occurring in three clusters. Infection control evaluations during clusters 2 and 3 identified hand hygiene compliance rates of 14% to 25%, appropriate personal protective equipment use in only 33% of observed instances, and deficient wound-care practices. GAS isolates from residents and staff of all three facilities were subtype emm89.0; on phylogenetic analysis, facility A isolates were monophyletic and distinct. Conclusions Inadequate infection control and improper wound-care practices likely led to this 28-month-long outbreak of severe infections in a skilled nursing facility. Whole genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis suggested that intrafacility transmission of a single highly transmissible GAS strain was responsible for the outbreak in facility A. Integration of genomic epidemiology tools with traditional epidemiology and infection control assessments was helpful in investigation of a facility-wide outbreak.

Skin immunization is effective against a number of infectious diseases, including smallpox and tuberculosis, but is difficult to administer. Here, we assessed the use of an easy-to-administer microneedle (MN) patch for skin vaccination using an inactivated rotavirus vaccine (IRV) in mice. Female inbred BALB/c mice in groups of six were immunized once in the skin using MN coated with 5 µg or 0.5 µg of inactivated rotavirus antigen or by intramuscular (IM) injection with 5 µg or 0.5 µg of the same antigen, bled at 0 and 10 days, and exsanguinated at 28 days. Rotavirus-specific IgG titers increased over time in sera of mice immunized with IRV using MN or IM injection. However, titers of IgG and neutralizing activity were generally higher in MN immunized mice than in IM immunized mice; the titers in mice that received 0.5 µg of antigen with MN were comparable or higher than those that received 5 µg of antigen IM, indicating dose sparing. None of the mice receiving negative-control, antigen-free MN had any IgG titers. In addition, MN immunization was at least as effective as IM administration in inducing a memory response of dendritic cells in the spleen. Our findings demonstrate that MN delivery can reduce the IRV dose needed to mount a robust immune response compared to IM injection and holds promise as a strategy for developing a safer and more effective rotavirus vaccine for use among children throughout the world.

Measles vaccination programs would benefit from delivery methods that decrease cost, simplify logistics, and increase safety. Conventional subcutaneous injection is limited by the need for skilled healthcare professionals to reconstitute and administer injections, and by the need for safe needle handling and disposal to reduce the risk of disease transmission through needle re-use and needlestick injury. Microneedles are micron-scale, solid needles coated with a dry formulation of vaccine that dissolves in the skin within minutes after patch application. By avoiding the use of hypodermic needles, vaccination using a microneedle patch could be carried out by minimally trained personnel with reduced risk of blood-borne disease transmission. The goal of this study was to evaluate measles vaccination using a microneedle patch to address some of the limitations of subcutaneous injection. Viability of vaccine virus dried onto a microneedle patch was stabilized by incorporation of the sugar, trehalose, and loss of viral titer was less than 1 log10(TCID50) after storage for at least 30 days at room temperature. Microneedle patches were then used to immunize cotton rats with the Edmonston-Zagreb measles vaccine strain. Vaccination using microneedles at doses equaling the standard human dose or one-fifth the human dose generated neutralizing antibody levels equivalent to those of a subcutaneous immunization at the same dose. These results show that measles vaccine can be stabilized on microneedles and that vaccine efficiently reconstitutes in vivo to generate a neutralizing antibody response equivalent to that generated by subcutaneous injection.

Background Clusters of bloodstream infections caused by Burkholderia cepacia and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia are uncommon, but have been previously identified in hemodialysis centers that reprocessed dialyzers for reuse on patients. We investigated an outbreak of bloodstream infections caused by B cepacia and S maltophilia among hemodialysis patients in clinics of a dialysis organization. Study Design Outbreak investigation, including matched case-control study. Setting & Participants Hemodialysis patients treated in multiple outpatient clinics owned by a dialysis organization. Predictors Main predictors were dialyzer reuse, dialyzer model, and dialyzer reprocessing practice. Outcomes Case patients had a bloodstream infection caused by B cepacia or S maltophilia; controls were patients without infection dialyzed at the same clinic on the same day as a case; results of environmental cultures and organism typing. Results 17 cases (9 B cepacia and 8 S maltophilia bloodstream infections) occurred in 5 clinics owned by the same dialysis organization. Case patients were more likely to have received hemodialysis with a dialyzer that had been used more than 6 times (matched OR, 7.03; 95% CI, 1.38-69.76) and to have been dialyzed with a specific reusable dialyzer (Model R) with sealed ends (OR, 22.87; 95% CI, 4.49-∞). No major lapses during dialyzer reprocessing were identified that could explain the outbreak. B cepacia was isolated from samples collected from a dialyzer header-cleaning machine from a clinic with cases and was indistinguishable from a patient isolate collected from the same clinic, by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Gram-negative bacteria were isolated from 2 reused Model R dialyzers that had undergone the facility's reprocessing procedure. Limitations Limited statistical power and overmatching; few patient isolates and dialyzers available for testing. Conclusions This outbreak was likely caused by contamination during reprocessing of reused dialyzers. Results of this and previous investigations demonstrate that exposing patients to reused dialyzers increases the risk for bloodstream infections. To reduce infection risk, providers should consider implementing single dialyzer use whenever possible.

On December 23, 2014, the New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) was notified of adverse health events in two patients who had been inadvertently administered nonsterile, simulation 0.9% sodium chloride intravenous (IV) fluids at an urgent care facility. Simulation saline is a nonsterile product not meant for human or animal use; it is intended for use by medical trainees practicing IV administration of saline on mannequins or other training devices. Both patients experienced a febrile illness during product administration and were hospitalized; one patient developed sepsis and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Neither patient died. Staff members at the clinic reported having ordered the product through their normal medical supply distributor and not recognizing during administration that it was not intended for human use.

Very high vaccination coverage is required to eliminate measles, but achieving high coverage can be constrained by the logistical challenges associated with subcutaneous injection. To simplify the logistics of vaccine delivery, a patch containing micron-scale polymeric needles was formulated to encapsulate the standard dose of measles vaccine (1000 TCID₅₀) and the immunogenicity of the microneedle patch was compared with subcutaneous injection in rhesus macaques. The microneedle patch was administered without reconstitution with diluent, dissolved in skin within 10 min, and caused only mild, transient skin erythema. Both groups of rhesus macaques generated neutralizing antibody responses to measles that were consistent with protection and the neutralizing antibody titers were equivalent. In addition, the microneedle patches maintained an acceptable level of potency after storage at elevated temperature suggesting improved thermostability compared to standard lyophilized vaccine. In conclusion, a measles microneedle patch vaccine was immunogenic in non-human primates, and this approach offers a promising delivery method that could help increase vaccination coverage.

The phased replacement of oral polio vaccine (OPV) with inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) is expected to significantly complicate mass vaccination campaigns, which are an important component of the global polio eradication endgame strategy. To simplify mass vaccination with IPV, we developed microneedle patches that are easy to administer, have a small package size, generate no sharps waste and are inexpensive to manufacture. When administered to rhesus macaques, neutralizing antibody titers were equivalent among monkeys vaccinated using microneedle patches and conventional intramuscular injection for IPV types 1 and 2. Serologic response to IPV type 3 vaccination was weaker after microneedle patch vaccination compared to intramuscular injection; however, we suspect the administered type 3 dose was lower due to a flawed pre-production IPV type 3 analytical method. IPV vaccination using microneedle patches was well tolerated by the monkeys. We conclude that IPV vaccination using a microneedle patch is immunogenic in rhesus macaques and may offer a simpler method of IPV vaccination of people to facilitate polio eradication.

Laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) eye surgery is increasingly common, with approximately 600,000 procedures performed each year in the United States. LASIK eye surgery is typically performed in an outpatient setting and involves the use of a machine-guided laser to reshape the lens of the eye to correct vision irregularities. Clinic A is an ambulatory surgery center that performs this procedure on 1 day each month. On February 5, 2015, the Toledo-Lucas County Health Department (TLCHD) in Ohio was notified of eye infections in two of the six patients who had undergone LASIK procedures at clinic A on January 9, 2015. The two patients experienced eye pain after the procedures and received diagnoses of infection with Mycobacterium chelonae, an environmental organism found in soil and water.