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BackgroundPhthalate exposures are ubiquitous during pregnancy and may contribute to racial and ethnic disparities in preterm birth.ObjectivesWe investigated race and ethnicity in the relationship between biomarkers of phthalate exposure and preterm birth by examining: a) how hypothetical reductions in racial and ethnic disparities in phthalate metabolites might reduce the probability of preterm birth; and b) exposure-response models stratified by race and ethnicity.MethodsWe pooled individual-level data on 6,045 pregnancies from 16 U.S. cohorts. We investigated covariate-adjusted differences in nine urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations by race and ethnicity [non-Hispanic White (White, 43%), non-Hispanic Black (Black, 13%), Hispanic/Latina (38%), and Asian/Pacific Islander (3%)]. Using g-computation, we estimated changes in the probability of preterm birth under hypothetical interventions to eliminate disparities in levels of urinary phthalate metabolites by proportionally lowering average concentrations in Black and Hispanic/Latina participants to be approximately equal to the averages in White participants. We also used race and ethnicity-stratified logistic regression to characterize associations between phthalate metabolites and preterm birth.ResultsIn comparison with concentrations among White participants, adjusted mean phthalate metabolite concentrations were consistently higher among Black and Hispanic/Latina participants by 23%-148% and 4%-94%, respectively. Asian/Pacific Islander participants had metabolite levels that were similar to those of White participants. Hypothetical interventions to reduce disparities in metabolite mixtures were associated with lower probabilities of preterm birth for Black [13% relative reduction; 95% confidence interval (CI): -34%, 8.6%] and Hispanic/Latina (9% relative reduction; 95% CI: -19%, 0.8%) participants. Odds ratios for preterm birth in association with phthalate metabolites demonstrated heterogeneity by race and ethnicity for two individual metabolites (mono-n-butyl and monoisobutyl phthalate), with positive associations that were larger in magnitude observed among Black or Hispanic/Latina participants.ConclusionsPhthalate metabolite concentrations differed substantially by race and ethnicity. Our results show hypothetical interventions to reduce population-level racial and ethnic disparities in biomarkers of phthalate exposure could potentially reduce the probability of preterm birth. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12831.

BACKGROUND: Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Food Drug and Cosmetic (FD&C) synthetic color additives (SCAs) have been associated with attentional and behavioral problems in children. Efforts to quantify exposure have focused on foods, while the contribution of medications and supplements remains unknown. OBJECTIVE: To estimate exposures to SCAs in children (2-16 years) and pregnant women from intake of common over-the-counter (OTC) medications and vitamins. METHODS: We estimated single-day exposure (mg/kg/day) to FD&C SCAs based on measurements of 25 different products and recommended dosages on product labels. Exposures were compared to SCA exposure estimates from food we previously developed and acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) established by FDA and the World Health Organization. RESULTS: The highest exposure was found for FD&C Red No. 40 in a childrens cold/cough/allergy syrup. A child aged 12-16 years consuming the maximum daily dosage would have an exposure of 0.221 mg/kg/day, which is twice this age groups typical exposure to this additive from food. No estimated exposures exceeded the ADIs. SIGNIFICANCE: Some childrens OTC medications and vitamins may cause daily SCA exposures comparable to those from foods. OTC medications and vitamins should be considered in efforts to quantify population exposure to FD&C SCAs. IMPACT: Exposure to synthetic color additives (SCAs) from foods has been associated with behavioral problems in children. Exposures from over-the-counter (OTC) medications and vitamins remain unquantified despite widespread use. We estimated exposures in children and pregnant women for 25 different OTC medication and vitamin products sold in the United States. While exposures were below acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) established by the US Food and Drug Administration and the World Health Organization, some were comparable to typical daily exposures from foods. This work critically informs future SCA exposure assessments and provides valuable information for parents concerned about the health effects of SCAs.

BackgroundWe previously reported associations of prenatal exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides with poorer neurodevelopment in early childhood and at school age, including poorer cognitive function and more behavioral problems, in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS), a birth cohort study in an agriculture community.ObjectiveWe investigated the extent to which early-life exposure to OP pesticides is associated with behavioral problems, including mental health, in youth during adolescence and early adulthood.MethodsWe measured urinary dialkylphosphates (DAPs), nonspecific OP metabolites, in urine samples collected from mothers twice during pregnancy (13 and 26 wk) and at five different times in their children (ages 6 months to 5 y). We assessed maternal report and youth report of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems using the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd edition (BASC-2), when the youth were ages 14, 16, and 18 y. Because there was evidence of nonlinearity, we estimated associations across quartiles of DAPs and modeled repeated outcome measures using generalized estimating equations.ResultsThere were 335 youths with prenatal maternal DAP measures and 14-. 16-, or 18-y BASC-2 scores. Prenatal maternal DAP concentrations (specific gravity-adjusted median, Q1-Q3=159.4, 78.7-350.4 nmol/L) were associated with higher T-scores (more behavior problems) from maternal report, including more hyperactivity [fourth vs. first quartile of exposure β=2.32; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.18, 4.45], aggression (β=1.90; 95% CI: 0.15, 3.66), attention problems (β=2.78; 95% CI: 0.26, 5.30), and depression (β=2.66; 95% CI: 0.08, 5.24). Associations with youth report of externalizing problems were null, and associations with depression were suggestive (fourth vs. first quartile of exposure β=2.15; 95% CI: -0.36, 4.67). Childhood DAP metabolites were not associated with behavioral problems.DiscussionWe found associations of prenatal, but not childhood, urinary DAP concentrations with adolescent/young adult externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. These findings are consistent with prior associations we have reported with neurodevelopmental outcomes measured earlier in childhood in CHAMACOS participants and suggests that prenatal exposure to OP pesticides may have lasting effects on the behavioral health of youth as they mature into adulthood, including their mental health. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11380.

BackgroundThe prevalence of liver disorders and metabolic syndrome has increased among youth. Glyphosate, the most widely used herbicide worldwide, could contribute to the development of these conditions.ObjectiveWe aimed to assess whether lifetime exposure to glyphosate and its degradation product, aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), is associated with elevated liver transaminases and metabolic syndrome among young adults.MethodsWe conducted a prospective cohort study (n=480 mother-child dyads) and a nested case-control study (n=60 cases with elevated liver transaminases and 91 controls) using data from the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS). We measured glyphosate and AMPA concentrations in urine samples collected during pregnancy and at child ages 5, 14, and 18 y from cases and controls. We calculated glyphosate residue concentrations: [glyphosate + (1.5×AMPA)]. We estimated the amount of agricultural-use glyphosate applied within a 1-km radius of every residence from pregnancy to age 5 y for the full cohort using California Pesticide Use Reporting data. We assessed liver transaminases and metabolic syndrome at 18 y of age.ResultsUrinary AMPA at age 5 y was associated with elevated transaminases [relative risk (RR) per 2-fold increase=1.27, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.06, 1.53] and metabolic syndrome (RR=2.07, 95% CI: 1.38, 3.11). Urinary AMPA and glyphosate residues at age 14 y were associated with metabolic syndrome [RR=1.80 (95% CI: 1.10, 2.93) and RR=1.88 (95% CI: 1.03, 3.42), respectively]. Overall, a 2-fold increase in urinary AMPA during childhood was associated with a 14% and a 55% increased risk of elevated liver transaminases and metabolic syndrome, respectively. Living near agricultural glyphosate applications during early childhood (birth to 5 y of age) was also associated with metabolic syndrome at age 18 y in the case-control group (RR=1.53, 95% CI: 1.16, 2.02).DiscussionChildhood exposure to glyphosate and AMPA may increase risk of liver and cardiometabolic disorders in early adulthood, which could lead to more serious diseases later in life. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11721.

BackgroundYoung children may be exposed to pesticides in child care centers, but little is known about determinants of pesticide contamination in these environments.ObjectiveCharacterize pesticide contamination in early care and education (ECE) centers and identify predictors of pesticide concentrations and loading in dust collected from classroom carpets.MethodsCarpet dust samples were collected from 51 licensed child care centers in Northern California and analyzed for 14 structural and agricultural pesticides. Program characteristics were collected through administration of director interviews and observational surveys, including an integrated pest management (IPM) inspection. Pesticide use information for the prior year was obtained from the California Department of Pesticide Regulation to characterize structural applications and nearby agricultural pesticide use.ResultsThe most frequently detected pesticides were cis-permethrin (98%), trans-permethrin (98%), bifenthrin (94%), fipronil (94%), and chlorpyrifos (88%). Higher bifenthrin levels were correlated with agricultural applications within 3 kilometers, and higher fipronil levels were correlated with professional pesticide applications in the prior year. In multivariable models, higher IPM Checklist scores were associated with lower loading of chlorpyrifos and permethrin. Placement of the sampled area carpet was also a predictor of chlorpyrifos loading. The strongest predictor of higher pesticide loading for the most frequently detected pesticides was location in California's San Joaquin Valley.SignificanceOur findings contribute to the growing understanding that pesticides are ubiquitous in children's environments. Pesticide levels in carpet dust were associated with some factors that ECE directors may have control over, such as IPM practices, and others that are beyond their control, such as geographic location. IPM is an important tool that has the potential to reduce pesticide exposures in ECE environments, even for pesticides no longer in use.ImpactOne million children in California under six years old attend child care programs where they may spend up to 40 h per week. Children are uniquely vulnerable to environmental contaminants; however early care settings are under researched in environmental health studies. Little is known about predictors of pesticide levels found in environmental samples from child care facilities. This study aims to identify behavioral and environmental determinants of pesticide contamination in California child care centers. Findings can empower child care providers and consumers and inform decision makers to reduce children's exposures to pesticides and promote lifelong health.

Concern that synthetic food dyes may impact behavior in children prompted a review by the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). OEHHA conducted a systematic review of the epidemiologic research on synthetic food dyes and neurobehavioral outcomes in children with or without identified behavioral disorders (particularly attention and activity). We also conducted a search of the animal toxicology literature to identify studies of neurobehavioral effects in laboratory animals exposed to synthetic food dyes. Finally, we conducted a hazard characterization of the potential neurobehavioral impacts of food dye consumption. We identified 27 clinical trials of children exposed to synthetic food dyes in this review, of which 25 were challenge studies. All studies used a cross-over design and most were double blinded and the cross-over design was randomized. Sixteen (64%) out of 25 challenge studies identified some evidence of a positive association, and in 13 (52%) the association was statistically significant. These studies support a relationship between food dye exposure and adverse behavioral outcomes in children. Animal toxicology literature provides additional support for effects on behavior. Together, the human clinical trials and animal toxicology literature support an association between synthetic food dyes and behavioral impacts in children. The current Food and Drug Administration (FDA) acceptable daily intakes are based on older studies that were not designed to assess the types of behavioral effects observed in children. For four dyes where adequate dose-response data from animal and human studies were available, comparisons of the effective doses in studies that measured behavioral or brain effects following exposure to synthetic food dyes indicate that the basis of the ADIs may not be adequate to protect neurobehavior in susceptible children. There is a need to re-evaluate exposure in children and for additional research to provide a more complete database for establishing ADIs protective of neurobehavioral effects.

BackgroundStudies have documented independent adverse associations between prenatal and early-life exposure to environmental chemicals and social adversity with child neurodevelopment; however, few have considered these exposures jointly. The objective of this analysis is to examine whether associations of pesticide mixtures and adolescent neurobehavioral development are modified by early-life adversity in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) cohort.MethodsWe used linear mixed effects Bayesian Hierarchical Models (BHM) to examine the joint effect of applications of 11 agricultural pesticides within 1 km of maternal homes during pregnancy and youth-reported Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) with maternal and youth-reported internalizing behaviors, hyperactivity, and attention problems assessed via the Behavior Assessment for Children (BASC) (mean = 50, standard deviation = 10) at ages 16 and 18 years (n = 458).ResultsThe median (25th-75th percentiles) of ACEs was 1 (0-3); 72.3% of participants had low ACEs (0-2 events) and 27.7% had ACEs (3+ events). Overall, there was little evidence of modification of exposure-outcome associations by ACEs. A two-fold increase in malathion use was associated with increased internalizing behaviors among those with high ACEs from both maternal- (β = 1.9; 95% Credible Interval (CrI): 0.2, 3.7 for high ACEs vs. β = -0.1; 95% CrI: 1.2, 0.9 for low ACEs) and youth-report (β = 2.1; 95% CrI: 0.4, 3.8 for high ACEs vs. β = 0.2; 95% CrI: 0.8, 1.2 for low ACEs). Applications of malathion and dimethoate were also associated with higher youth-reported hyperactivity and/or inattention among those with high ACEs.ConclusionWe observed little evidence of effect modification of agricultural pesticide use near the home during pregnancy and adolescent behavioral problems by child ACEs. Future studies should examine critical windows of susceptibility of exposure to chemical and non-chemical stressors and should consider biomarker-based exposure assessment methods.

BACKGROUND: There are growing health concerns about exposure to toxicants released from recycled tire rubber, which is commonly used in synthetic turf and playground mats. To better estimate childrens exposure and risk from recycled tire rubber used in synthetic turf and playground mats, there is a need to collect detailed accurate information on mouthing activity and dermal contact behaviors. The objective of this study was to quantify and analyze micro-level activity time series (MLATS) data from children aged 1-12 years old while playing (non-sport-related games) at turf-like locations and playgrounds. Another objective was to estimate the incidental ingestion rate of rubber crumb among children. METHODS: Hand and mouth contact frequency, hourly duration, and median contact duration with different objects were calculated for children playing on turf (i.e., parks, lawns, and gardens) (n = 56) and for children playing on playground structures (n = 24). Statistically significant differences between males and females as well as childrens age groups were evaluated. The daily incidental ingestion rate of rubber crumb was calculated. RESULTS: For children playing on turf, there were significant differences between younger (1-6 y) and older (7-12 y) children for the mouthing median duration with non-dietary objects and all objects. For children playing on playground structures, we found significant mouthing frequency differences between younger (1-6 y) and older children (7-12 y) with all objects, and for mouthing median duration with non-dietary objects. There were no significant differences between males and females playing on artificial turf-like surfaces or playground mats. Our estimated mean incidental ingestion rate was 0.08, 0.07, and 0.08 g rubber crumb/day for children

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates artificial food colors (AFCs) in the United States. Exposure to AFCs has raised concerns about adverse behavioral effects in children. We quantified AFC exposure in women of childbearing age, pregnant women, and children and compared them to FDA and World Health Organization acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). We estimated the “typical” and “high” single-day and two-day average dietary exposure to each AFC (mg/kg/day) based on laboratory measurements and food consumption data from the 2015−2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). We also examined whether AFC intake differed by income, education, and ethnicity. Exposure tended to be higher in children and the highest AFC exposure was found for Red No. 40. Children’s mean and 95th percentile FD&C Red No. 3 estimated intakes exceeded the ADIs in some instances. Juice drinks, soft drinks, icings, and ice cream cones were major foods contributing to children’s (

IntroductionYoung children may be exposed to pesticides used in child care centers and their family homes. We examined pesticide use and environmental and behavioral factors potentially associated with child exposures in these settings.MethodPreschool-age children (n = 125) wore silicone wristbands to assess pesticide exposures in their child care centers and home environments. Information about environmental and behavioral exposure determinants was collected using parent surveys, child care director interviews, and observations.ResultsCommonly detected pesticides were bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, fipronil, and cis- and trans-permethrin. Pesticide chemical storage onsite, cracks in the walls, using doormats, observed pests, or evidence of pests were associated with child exposures. Exposures were higher in counties with higher agricultural or commercial pesticide use or when children lived in homes near agricultural fields.DiscussionYoung children are being exposed to harmful pesticides, and interventions are needed to lower their risk of health problems later in life.

BackgroundPhthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are endocrine disrupting chemicals used in consumer products, building materials, and food processing and packaging materials. They are associated with adverse health outcomes, especially when exposure occurs during heightened windows of susceptibility.ObjectiveWe evaluated the relationship between housing and dietary characteristics and the concentration of several high-molecular-weight (HMW) phthalate metabolites and BPA in a cohort of Latina adolescents.MethodsWe collected information on recent food consumption and housing characteristics and quantified the concentration of HMW phthalate and BPA metabolites in urine collected at two different time points. We used generalized estimating equations (GEE) to assess predictors of each metabolite.ResultsNo significant associations were observed between housing and dietary characteristics and metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) or BPA. In contrast, higher urinary monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) concentration was associated with living in a home with vinyl or linoleum flooring (66.7% change, p-value

IntroductionPrevious studies show evidence for associations of prenatal exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides with poorer childhood neurodevelopment. As children grow older, poorer cognition, executive function, and school performance can give rise to risk-taking behaviors, including substance abuse, delinquency, and violent acts. We investigated whether prenatal OP exposure was associated with these risk-taking behaviors in adolescence and young adulthood in a Mexican American cohort.MethodsWe measured urinary dialkyl phosphates (DAPs), non-specific metabolites of OPs, twice (13 and 26 weeks gestation) in pregnant women recruited in 1999-2000 in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study, a birth cohort set in a primarily Latino agricultural community in the Salinas Valley, California. We followed up children throughout their childhood and adolescence; at the 18-year visit, adolescent youth (n = 315) completed a computer-based questionnaire which included questions about substance use, risky sexual activity, risky driving, and delinquency and police encounters. We used multivariable models to estimate associations of prenatal total DAPs with these risk-taking behaviors.ResultsThe prevalence of risk-taking behaviors in CHAMACOS youth ranged from 8.9% for smoking or vaping nicotine to 70.2% for committing a delinquent act. Associations of total prenatal DAPs (geometric mean = 132.4 nmol/L) with risk-taking behavior were generally null and imprecise. Isolated findings included a higher risk for smoking or vaping nicotine within the past 30 days (relative risk [RR] per 10-fold increase in prenatal DAPs = 1.89, 95% CI: 1.00, 3.56) and driving without a license (RR = 1.74, 95% CI: 1.25, 2.42). There were no consistent differences by sex or childhood adversity.DiscussionWe did not find clear or consistent evidence for associations of prenatal OP exposure with risk-taking behaviors in adolescence/early adulthood in the CHAMACOS population. Our small sample size may have prevented us from detecting potentially subtle associations of early life OP exposure with these risk-taking behaviors.

The brain's prefrontal cortex directs higher-order cognitive and behavioral processes that are important for attention, working memory, and inhibitory control. We investigated whether gestational exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides was associated with these abilities in childhood and early adolescence. Between 1999 and 2000, we enrolled pregnant women in a birth cohort drawn from an agricultural region of California. We measured dialkyl phosphate (DAP) metabolites of OP pesticides in maternal pregnancy urine samples (13 and 26 weeks) and estimated associations with behaviors related to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and executive function, assessed longitudinally; 351 families provided neurodevelopmental outcome data at any point when the child was aged 7-12 years. We assessed function across multiple dimensions (e.g., working memory, attention), methods (e.g., behavior reports, child assessment), and reporters (e.g., mothers, teachers, child self-reports). Higher gestational DAP concentrations were consistently associated with behaviors related to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and executive function. For example, a 10-fold increase in gestational DAP concentration was associated with poorer longitudinally assessed Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function scores, as reported by mothers (β = 4.0 (95% confidence interval: 2.1, 5.8); a higher score indicates more problems), and Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition Working Memory scores (a 3.8-point reduction; β = -3.8 (95% confidence interval: -6.2, -1.3)). Reducing gestational exposure to OP pesticides through public health policy is an important goal.

BackgroundHousehold cleaning products may be a significant source of chemical exposures, including carcinogens and suspected endocrine disruptors.ObjectivesWe characterized exposures during routine household cleaning and tested an intervention to reduce exposures to cleaning product chemicals.MethodsThe Lifting Up Communities with Interventions and Research (LUCIR) Study is a youth-led, community-based intervention project. Youth researchers conducted personal air monitoring with 50 Latina women while they cleaned their homes with their regular cleaning products (preintervention visit) and then 1 week later while they used "green" cleaning products provided by the study (postintervention visit). Air samples were analyzed for volatile and semivolatile organic compounds using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography. We compared pre- and postintervention air concentrations of 47 chemicals of concern, selected because they were on California's Proposition 65 list of carcinogens or reproductive/developmental toxicants or were suspected endocrine disruptors. Youth researchers were integrally involved in the study design, data collection, interpretation, and dissemination of findings.ResultsWe observed statistically significant decreases in air concentrations of 17 chemicals of concern when participants switched to green cleaning products, including decreases in geometric mean concentrations of 1,4-dioxane (-46.4%), chloroform (-86.7%), benzene (-24.8%), naphthalene (-40.3%), toluene (-24.2%), and hexane (-35.5%). We observed significant increases in air concentrations of three fragrance compounds: the plant-derived terpene, beta-myrcene (221.5%), and the synthetic musks celestolide (31.0%) and galaxolide (79.6%). Almost all participants (98%) said the replacement products worked as well as their original products, and 90% said that they would consider buying the replacement products in the future.DiscussionThis study demonstrates that choosing cleaning products that are marketed as green may reduce exposure to several carcinogens and endocrine disruptors. Future studies should determine whether use of unscented green products would further reduce exposure to terpenes and musks. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP8831.

BackgroundThough prenatal organophosphate pesticide (OP) exposure has been associated with lower intellectual quotient and behavioral disorders in childhood, factors related to later delinquency, no research has directly evaluated the impact of OPs on delinquency.ObjectiveTo evaluate the association between prenatal and childhood OP exposure and juvenile delinquency in Mexican-American youth in the Center for Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS).MethodsWe measured dialkyl phosphate (DAPs) urinary metabolites of OPs in two prenatal maternal samples and in five child samples collected between six months and five years of age. Youth completed delinquency questionnaires at 16 years. We examined associations of prenatal and childhood DAPs with several delinquency outcomes (n = 313) using survival and generalized linear models.ResultsAlmost 60% of youth reported delinquent acts (mostly minor), and 8% reported a police arrest. We observed largely null results of prenatal or childhood DAP concentrations and delinquency outcomes, with some isolated associations. A ten-fold increase in maternal dimethylphosphate (DM) concentrations measured after 20 weeks gestation was associated with an earlier age of first delinquent act (Hazard Ratio = 1.38, 95% CI: 1.01, 1.88) and an increased Odds Ratio (OR) of having committed 1-3 or ≥4 delinquent acts, compared to the no delinquency reference group (OR = 1.77, 95% CI: 1.01-3.08 and 2.17, 95% CI: 1.13-4.17, respectively). Higher childhood diethylphosphate (DE) concentrations were associated with a later age of first delinquent act (HR: 0.67; 95% CI: 0.46-0.97).DiscussionWe did not find strong evidence of association between prenatal or childhood OP exposure and juvenile delinquency in the present cohort. There is an increasing literature that relates OP exposure to neurobehavioral impairments in childhood, and there is a need to understand long-term potential neurodevelopmental effects of early-life OP exposure.

Studies suggest that exposure to pesticides during pregnancy and early childhood is associated with adverse child neurodevelopment. Research to date has focused primarily on exposure to single pesticides or pesticide classes in isolation; there are little data on the effect of exposure to pesticide mixtures on child and adolescent neurodevelopment.MethodsUsing California's Pesticide Use Reporting database, we estimated agricultural pesticide use within 1 km of the home during the prenatal and postnatal (ages 0-5 years) periods among participants in the Center for the Health Assessment for Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) birth cohort. We implemented a Bayesian Hierarchical linear mixed-effects model to examine associations with maternal- and youth-reported behavioral and emotional problems from the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd edition (BASC-2) at ages 16 and 18 years (n = 593).ResultsWe observed mostly null associations between pesticide applications and neurobehavioral outcomes. There were some trends of modestly increased internalizing behaviors and attention problems in association with organophosphate insecticide use near the home during the prenatal period. In the postnatal period, a two-fold increase in glyphosate applications was associated with more youth-reported depression (β = 1.2, 95% credible intervals [CrI] = 0.2, 2.2), maternal-reported internalizing behaviors (β = 1.23, 95% CrI = 0.2, 2.3), and anxiety (β = 1.2, 95% CrI = 0.2, 2.3). We observed some protective associations with imidacloprid during the prenatal period, particularly in sex-specific analyses.ConclusionsWe found only some subtle associations between some pesticides and neurobehavioral outcomes. This study extends previous work by considering potential exposure to mixtures of pesticides.

Abstract Background Studies report that residential use of pesticides in low-income homes is common because of poor housing conditions and pest infestations; however, exposure data on contemporary-use pesticides in low-income households is limited. We conducted a study in low-income homes from urban and agricultural communities to: characterize and compare house dust levels of agricultural and residential-use pesticides; evaluate the correlation of pesticide concentrations in samples collected several days apart; examine whether concentrations of pesticides phased-out for residential uses, but still used in agriculture (i.e., chlorpyrifos and diazinon) have declined in homes in the agricultural community; and estimate resident children's pesticide exposures via inadvertent dust ingestion. Methods In 2006, we collected up to two dust samples 5-8 days apart from each of 13 urban homes in Oakland, California and 15 farmworker homes in Salinas, California, an agricultural community (54 samples total). We measured 22 insecticides including organophosphates (chlorpyrifos, diazinon, diazinon-oxon, malathion, methidathion, methyl parathion, phorate, and tetrachlorvinphos) and pyrethroids (allethrin-two isomers, bifenthrin, cypermethrin-four isomers, deltamethrin, esfenvalerate, imiprothrin, permethrin-two isomers, prallethrin, and sumithrin), one phthalate herbicide (chlorthal-dimethyl), one dicarboximide fungicide (iprodione), and one pesticide synergist (piperonyl butoxide). Results More than half of the households reported applying pesticides indoors. Analytes frequently detected in both locations included chlorpyrifos, diazinon, permethrin, allethrin, cypermethrin, and piperonyl butoxide; no differences in concentrations or loadings were observed between locations for these analytes. Chlorthal-dimethyl was detected solely in farmworker homes, suggesting contamination due to regional agricultural use. Concentrations in samples collected 5-8 days apart in the same home were strongly correlated for the majority of the frequently detected analytes (Spearman ρ = 0.70-1.00, p < 0.01). Additionally, diazinon and chlorpyrifos concentrations in Salinas farmworker homes were 40-80% lower than concentrations reported in samples from Salinas farmworker homes studied between 2000-2002, suggesting a temporal reduction after their residential phase-out. Finally, estimated non-dietary pesticide intake for resident children did not exceed current U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (U.S. EPA) recommended chronic reference doses (RfDs). Conclusion Low-income children are potentially exposed to a mixture of pesticides as a result of poorer housing quality. Historical or current pesticide use indoors is likely to contribute to ongoing exposures. Agricultural pesticide use may also contribute to additional exposures to some pesticides in rural areas. Although children's non-dietary intake did not exceed U.S. EPA RfDs for select pesticides, this does not ensure that children are free of any health risks as RfDs have their own limitations, and the children may be exposed indoors via other pathways. The frequent pesticide use reported and high detection of several home-use pesticides in house dust suggests that families would benefit from integrated pest management strategies to control pests and minimize current and future exposures.

BackgroundSpot urine samples are often used to assess exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides in place of "gold standard" 24-hr samples, which are cumbersome to collect. Assessment of non-persistent chemicals using spot urine samples may result in exposure misclassification that could bias epidemiological analyses towards the null. Few studies have examined the validity of measurements of urinary metabolites in spot samples to estimate daily OP dose or the potential implications of reliance on spot samples for risk assessments.ObjectiveExamine the validity of using first morning void (FMV) and random non-FMV urine samples to estimate cumulative 24-hr OP pesticide dose among children living in an agricultural region.MethodsWe collected urine samples over 7 consecutive days, including two 24-hr samples, from 25 children living in an agricultural community. We used measurements of urinary dialkylphosphate (DAP) metabolites, data on nearby agricultural pesticide applications, and daily dietary intake data to estimate internal dose from exposure to a mixture of OP pesticides according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Cumulative Risk Assessment guidelines. Dose estimates from volume- and creatinine-adjusted same-day FMV and non-FMV spot urine samples were compared to the "gold standard" estimates from 24-hr samples.ResultsNon-FMV samples had relatively weak ability to predict 24-hr dose (R2 = 0.09-0.38 for total DAPs) and tended to underestimate the percentage of samples exceeding regulatory guidelines. Models with FMV samples or the average of an FMV and non-FMV sample were similarly predictive of 24-hr estimates (R2 for DAPs = 0.40-0.68 and 0.40-0.80, respectively, depending on volume adjustment method).ConclusionReliance on non-FMV samples for risk assessments may underestimate daily OP dose and the percentage of children with dose estimates exceeding regulatory guidelines. If 24-hr urine sample collection is infeasible, we recommend future studies prioritize the collection of FMV samples to most accurately characterize OP dose in children.

Food, Drug, & Cosmetic (FD&C) dyes can be found in various products outside of food that are consumed by children. The amount of FD&C dyes used in commercial products is proprietary. Determining the contribution of dye intake from commercial products requires direct assessment of FD&C dyes in the products. This dataset contains the raw data of HPLC peak areas, absolute values, averages, SDs and % RSD for FD&C dyes in children's gummy vitamins, children's tablet vitamins, prenatal vitamins, children's cough/cold/allergy tablets & syrups, and children's pain reliever tablets & syrups obtained using high performance liquid chromatography with a photometric diode array detector (HPLC-PDA). The data can be used for further interpretations of dye intake in children, based upon dose levels suggested for distinct age groups, to evaluate the consumption of the FD&C dyes and accepted daily intake (ADIs) suggested for each FD&C dye by the United States Food & Drug Administration (US FDA). The variability associated within each category is critical for understanding how products on the market can differ between lot especially with large gaps between expiration dates. The interpretation of the data is described in "Certified Food Dyes in Over the Counter Medicines and Supplements Marketed for Children and Pregnant Women" in the Journal of Food and Chemical Toxicology [1].

Consumer awareness of the presence of pesticides in fruits and vegetables and associated health risks influences the actions they undertake to reduce their exposure. This study was carried out to explore consumers’ awareness of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables and perceptions towards associated health effects in Kampala Metropolitan Area (KMA) in Uganda. Eight focus group discussions (FGDs) were done with fruit and vegetables consumers in KMA. The FGDs consisted of females and males living in urban and rural areas. Discussions were recorded and transcribed. The transcripts were coded inductively and analysed using conventional content analysis. Consumers were aware of the presence of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables. Non-compliance to good agricultural practices, desire to produce good quality fruits and vegetables, and conflict of interest were thought to be the underlying reasons for the contamination. Consumers thought that their health is at risk of chronic and acute health effects, and that this risk is unavoidable. They emphasized that long term exposure to the pesticide residues puts them at risk of conditions like reproductive defects and noncommunicable diseases like cancer, hypertension, obesity, kidney and heart diseases among others. To reduce the risk, consumers were aware of and relied on mitigation measures including washing, peeling, drying and cooking or applied them in combination. Consumers were aware of the presence of pesticide residues on fruits and vegetables, potential short and long term health risks due to exposure, and domestic processing methods to reduce health risks. There is need for authorities to ensure adherence to good agricultural practices and ensure that farmers and consumers understand that pesticide are used to control pests and disease but not to primarily increase shelf life of fruits and vegetables.

We conducted a pilot study to investigate air quality indoors in two classrooms and outdoors on the school grounds in a California community with historically high PM2.5 (fine particulate matter, diameter < 2.5 μm). We used computer-controlled scanning electron microscopy of passive samples to identify major PM types, which were used to help interpret continuous PM2.5 and black carbon sensor data. The five major PM types were sodium salt particles with sulfur, calcium, or chlorine; aluminosilicate dusts; carbonaceous combustion agglomerates; biogenic particles; and metal-rich particles. Based on morphological evidence of water droplets, the salt particles are hypothesized to be secondary aerosols formed via the reaction of sodium chloride fog droplets with sulfur from regional sources. The carbonaceous agglomerates had unusual morphologies consistent with low-temperature combustion and smoke from open-burning activities observed nearby. The passive PM sampler and continuous sensor results indicated lower concentrations in the classroom equipped with an air cleaner. Passive samples collected in one classroom exhibited enhanced PM10–2.5 crustal particles and PM2.5 metal particles, suggesting a potential local PM source in that room. Future study designs that enable longer passive sampling times would reduce detection limits and sample contamination concerns. The determination of major airborne particle types in a given environment makes this technique a useful and unique community exposure assessment tool, even in these limited-duration (48 h) deployments.

Personal exposure to pesticides has not been well characterized, especially among adolescents. We used silicone wristbands to assess pesticide exposure in 14 to 16 year old Latina girls (N = 97) living in the agricultural Salinas Valley, California, USA and enrolled in the COSECHA (CHAMACOS of Salinas Examining Chemicals in Homes and Agriculture) Study, a youth participatory action study in an agricultural region of California. We determined pesticide concentrations (ng/g/day) in silicone wristbands worn for one week using gas chromatography electron capture detection and employed gas chromatography mass spectrometry to determine the presence or absence of over 1500 chemicals. Predictors of pesticide detections and concentrations were identified using logistic regression, Wilcoxon rank sum tests, and Tobit regression models. The most frequently detected pesticides in wristbands were fipronil sulfide (87%), cypermethrin (56%), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) (56%), dacthal (53%), and trans-permethrin (52%). Living within 100 m of active agricultural fields, having carpeting in the home, and having an exterminator treat the home in the past six months were associated with higher odds of detecting certain pesticides. Permethrin concentrations were lower for participants who cleaned their homes daily (GM: 1.9 vs. 6.8 ng/g/day, p = 0.01). In multivariable regression models, participants with doormats in the entryway of their home had lower concentrations (p

Use of personal care products, such as makeup, soaps, and sunscreen, may expose adolescent girls to potential endocrine disruptors, including phthalates, parabens, and other phenols. We evaluated the relationship between recent self-reported personal care product use and concentrations for urinary metabolites of phthalates, parabens, triclosan, and benzophenone-3 (BP-3) in 100 Latina adolescents. Girls who reported using makeup every day vs. rarely/never had higher urinary concentrations of monoethyl phthalate (MEP) (102.2 ng/mL vs. 52.4 ng/mL, P-value: 0.04), methyl paraben (MP) (120.5 ng/mL vs. 13.4 ng/mL, P-value

Lipids play a role in many biological functions and the newly emerging field of lipidomics aims to characterize the varying classes of lipid molecules present in biological specimens. Animal models have shown associations between maternal dietary supplementation with fatty acids during pregnancy and epigenetic changes in their offspring, demonstrating a mechanism through which prenatal environment can affect outcomes in children; however, data on maternal lipid metabolite levels during pregnancy and newborn DNA methylation in humans are sparse. In this study, we assessed the relationship of maternal lipid metabolites measured in the blood from pregnant women with newborn DNA methylation profiles in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas cohort. Targeted metabolomics was performed by selected reaction monitoring liquid chromatography and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry to measure 92 metabolites in plasma samples of pregnant women at ∼26 weeks gestation. DNA methylation was assessed using the Infinium HumanMethylation 450K BeadChip adjusting for cord blood cell composition. We uncovered numerous false discovery rate significant associations between maternal metabolite levels, particularly phospholipid and lysolipid metabolites, and newborn methylation. The majority of the observed relationships were negative, suggesting that higher lipid metabolites during pregnancy are associated with lower methylation levels at genes related to fetal development. These results further elucidate the complex relationship between early life exposures, maternal lipid metabolites, and infant epigenetic status.

This is dataset describing the levels of Food, Drug, & Cosmetic (FD&C) dye in juice drinks, breakfast cereals, frozen desserts, ice cream cones, fruit flavored soft drinks, frostings & icings, fruit snacks/candy, decoration chips for baking, water enhancers, and flavored fruit drink powder. Data values are organized by absolute values, averages, SDs and % RSD. High performance liquid chromatography with a photometric diode array detector (HPLC-PDA) was used to measure dye levels and generate the data. These values can be used to calculate levels of dyes consumed within various populations, such as children, and compare them to accepted daily intake (ADIs) values established by the United States Food & Drug Administration (US FDA). The data are interpreted in “Survey of Certified Food Dye Levels in Food Samples Consumed by Children for Updated Exposure Levels” in the Journal of Food Additives and Contaminants: Part B.1

Abstract Background Pesticide use for fruits and vegetable production in Uganda may result in presence of residues on produce which may pose health risks to consumers. Uganda does not have an established system for monitoring pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables and assessing potential health risks. This research aimed to conduct a health risk assessment of presence of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables in the Kampala Metropolitan Area in Uganda. Method Pesticides were measured in 160 fruits and vegetables samples collected at farms, markets, street vendors, restaurants and homes; and analysed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Fruit and vegetable consumption information was collected from 2177 people. Pesticide concentrations were compared with European Union maximum residual limits (MRLs). Mean values of pesticide concentration residues found in the sample of fruits and vegetables; and fruits and vegetables intake and body weight were used to calculate the estimated daily intake (EDI) of pesticide residues. EDI values were compared with acceptable daily intakes (ADI) to calculate the hazard quotient by age group, and stage at which consumption happens along the chain. Results Overall, 57 pesticides were detected in fruits and vegetables from farm to fork. Of the 57, 39 pesticides were detected in all the fruits and vegetables studied. Concentrations of fonofos, fenitrothion and fenhexamid were above the European Union MRLs in some samples. Hazard quotients based on dietary ingestion scenarios for 18 pesticides, including dichlorvos (444) alanycarb (314), fonofos (68), fenitrothion (62), dioxacarb (55) and benfuracarb (24) and others, were above 1, indicating the possibility of chronic health risk to consumers. Chronic health risk decreased with age but was stable for stage at which consumption happens along the food chain. The number of pesticides with EDI greater than the ADI decreased with increase in age; with 18, 13, 9, 11, 8, 9, and 9 pesticides for age groups

Abstract Concern that synthetic food dyes may impact behavior in children prompted a review by the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). OEHHA conducted a systematic review of the epidemiologic research on synthetic food dyes and neurobehavioral outcomes in children with or without identified behavioral disorders (particularly attention and activity). We also conducted a search of the animal toxicology literature to identify studies of neurobehavioral effects in laboratory animals exposed to synthetic food dyes. Finally, we conducted a hazard characterization of the potential neurobehavioral impacts of food dye consumption. We identified 27 clinical trials of children exposed to synthetic food dyes in this review, of which 25 were challenge studies. All studies used a cross-over design and most were double blinded and the cross-over design was randomized. Sixteen (64%) out of 25 challenge studies identified some evidence of a positive association, and in 13 (52%) the association was statistically significant. These studies support a relationship between food dye exposure and adverse behavioral outcomes in children. Animal toxicology literature provides additional support for effects on behavior. Together, the human clinical trials and animal toxicology literature support an association between synthetic food dyes and behavioral impacts in children. The current Food and Drug Administration (FDA) acceptable daily intakes are based on older studies that were not designed to assess the types of behavioral effects observed in children. For four dyes where adequate dose-response data from animal and human studies were available, comparisons of the effective doses in studies that measured behavioral or brain effects following exposure to synthetic food dyes indicate that the basis of the ADIs may not be adequate to protect neurobehavior in susceptible children. There is a need to re-evaluate exposure in children and for additional research to provide a more complete database for establishing ADIs protective of neurobehavioral effects.

Abstract Introduction Previous studies show evidence for associations of prenatal exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides with poorer childhood neurodevelopment. As children grow older, poorer cognition, executive function, and school performance can give rise to risk-taking behaviors, including substance abuse, delinquency, and violent acts. We investigated whether prenatal OP exposure was associated with these risk-taking behaviors in adolescence and young adulthood in a Mexican American cohort. Methods We measured urinary dialkyl phosphates (DAPs), non-specific metabolites of OPs, twice (13 and 26 weeks gestation) in pregnant women recruited in 1999–2000 in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study, a birth cohort set in a primarily Latino agricultural community in the Salinas Valley, California. We followed up children throughout their childhood and adolescence; at the 18-year visit, adolescent youth (n = 315) completed a computer-based questionnaire which included questions about substance use, risky sexual activity, risky driving, and delinquency and police encounters. We used multivariable models to estimate associations of prenatal total DAPs with these risk-taking behaviors. Results The prevalence of risk-taking behaviors in CHAMACOS youth ranged from 8.9% for smoking or vaping nicotine to 70.2% for committing a delinquent act. Associations of total prenatal DAPs (geometric mean = 132.4 nmol/L) with risk-taking behavior were generally null and imprecise. Isolated findings included a higher risk for smoking or vaping nicotine within the past 30 days (relative risk [RR] per 10-fold increase in prenatal DAPs = 1.89, 95% CI: 1.00, 3.56) and driving without a license (RR = 1.74, 95% CI: 1.25, 2.42). There were no consistent differences by sex or childhood adversity. Discussion We did not find clear or consistent evidence for associations of prenatal OP exposure with risk-taking behaviors in adolescence/early adulthood in the CHAMACOS population. Our small sample size may have prevented us from detecting potentially subtle associations of early life OP exposure with these risk-taking behaviors.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1289/EHP2580.].

ObjectivesTo examine the relationship between residential proximity to agricultural fumigant use and respiratory symptoms and lung function in 7-year old children.MethodsParticipants were 294 children living in the agricultural Salinas Valley, California and enrolled in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children Of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study. We obtained information on respiratory symptoms and asthma medication use from maternal questionnaires and children performed spirometry to determine the forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), and forced expiratory flow 25-75% (FEF25-75) at 7-years of age. We estimated agricultural fumigant use within 3, 5 and 8 km of residences during pregnancy and from birth to age 7 using California's Pesticide Use Report data. We evaluated the association between prenatal and postnatal residential proximity to agricultural use of methyl bromide, chloropicrin, metam sodium and 1,3-dichloropropene with respiratory symptoms and use of asthma medication with logistic regression models and continuous lung function measurements with linear regression models adjusted for confounders.ResultsThere were no significant associations between residential proximity to use of fumigants and respiratory symptoms or use of asthma medication. We did not observe any adverse relationships between residential proximity to fumigant use and lung function measurements. Unexpectedly, we observed suggestive evidence of improved FEV1 and FEF25-75 with higher use of methyl bromide and chloropicrin during the prenatal period. For example, for each 10-fold increase in methyl bromide use during the prenatal development period we observed higher FEV1 (β = 0.06 L/s; 95% CI: 0.00, 0.12) and higher FEF25-75 (β = 0.15 L/s; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.27). Maternal report of child allergies (runny nose without a cold during the previous year) modified the relationship between FEV1 and prenatal proximity to methyl bromide use (p = .07) and we only observed higher FEV1 among children without allergies (β = 0.08 L/s; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.14 for a 10-fold increase in methyl bromide use during the prenatal period).ConclusionsResidential proximity to agricultural fumigant use during pregnancy and childhood did not adversely affect respiratory health in the children through 7 years of age. These findings should be explored in larger studies.

BackgroundPrenatal exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides has been linked with poorer neurodevelopment and behaviors related to autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in previous studies, including in the Center for Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study, a birth cohort living in the agricultural Salinas Valley in California.ObjectivesTo investigate the association of prenatal exposure to OP pesticides with traits related to ASD, in childhood and adolescents in CHAMACOS.MethodsWe assessed OP exposure during pregnancy with measurements of dialkyl phosphates (DAP) metabolites in urine, and residential proximity to OP use during pregnancy using California's Pesticide Use Reporting (PUR) data and estimated associations with ASD-related traits using linear regression models. We measured traits reported by parents and teachers as well as the child's performance on tests that evaluate the ability to use facial expressions to recognize the mental state of others at 7, 101/2, and 14 years of age.ResultsPrenatal DAPs were associated with poorer parent and teacher reported social behavior [e.g., a 10-fold DAP increase was associated with a 2.7-point increase (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.9, 4.5) in parent-reported Social Responsiveness Scale, Version 2, T-scores at age 14]. We did not find clear evidence of associations between residential proximity to OP use during pregnancy and ASD-related traits.ConclusionsThese findings contribute mixed evidence linking OP pesticide exposures with traits related to developmental disorders like ASD. Subtle pesticide-related effects on ASD-related traits among a population with ubiquitous exposure could result in a rise in cases of clinically diagnosed disorders like ASD. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2580.

BackgroundPregnant women may be co-exposed to multiple insecticides in regions where both pyrethroids and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) are used for indoor residual spraying (IRS) for malaria control. Despite the potential for adverse effects on offspring, there are few studies in areas where IRS is currently used and little is known about the effects of pyrethroids on children's health.MethodsWe investigated the relationship between concentrations of four urinary pyrethroid metabolites in urine and organochlorine pesticide concentrations in maternal blood collected near delivery on body weight and body composition among children ≤2 years old participating in the prospective South Africa VHEMBE birth cohort (N = 708). We used measurements of length/height and weight collected at 1 and 2 years of age to calculate body mass index (BMI)-for-age, weight-for-age, and weight-for-height z-scores based on World Health Organization standards. We fit separate single-pollutant mixed effects models for each exposure of interest and also stratified by sex. We also fit all analyte concentrations jointly by using a Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) statistical method to assess variable importance of each analyte and to explore the potential for joint effects of the multiple exposures.ResultsSingle-pollutant linear mixed effects models showed that, among girls only, p,p'-DDT was associated with higher BMI-for-age (adjusted [a]β = 0.22 [95% CI: 0.10, 0.35]; sex interaction p-value = 0.001), weight-for-height (aβ = 0.22 [95% CI: 0.09, 0.34]; sex interaction p-value = 0.002), and weight-for-age (aβ = 0.17 [95% CI: 0.05, 0.29], sex interaction p-value = 0.01). Although single-pollutant models suggested that p,p'-DDT and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) were also associated with these outcomes in girls, p,p'-DDE was no longer associated in multi-pollutant models with BKMR. The pyrethroid metabolites cis-(2,2-dibromovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylicacid (cis-DBCA) and trans-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid (trans-DCCA) were inversely related to BMI-for-age and weight-for-height overall; however, results suggested that weight-for-age and weight-for-height associations for trans-DCCA (sex interaction p-valueweight-for-age = 0.02; p-valueweight-for-height = 0.13) and cis-DCCA (sex interaction p-valueweight-for-age = 0.02; p-valueweight-for-height = 0.08) were strongest and most consistent in boys relative to girls. BKMR also revealed joint effects from the chemical mixture. For instance, with increased concentrations of p,p'-DDE, the negative exposure-response relationship for cis-DBCA on BMI-for-age became steeper.ConclusionsOur single-pollutant and multi-pollutant model results show that maternal serum p,p'-DDT concentration was consistently and positively associated with body composition and body weight in young girls and that maternal urinary pyrethroid metabolite concentrations (particularly cis-DBCA and trans-DCCA) were negatively associated with body weight and body composition in young boys. Joint effects of the insecticide exposure mixture were also apparent, underscoring the importance of using advanced statistical methods to examine the health effects of chemical mixtures.

We report longitudinal serum concentrations of select persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in children at ages 7 and 9 years and in their mothers prenatally and again when the children were 9 years old. The participating families were enrolled in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS), a longitudinal birth cohort study of low-income Hispanic families residing in the Salinas Valley, California. We observed decreasing concentrations in the mothers with year of serum collection (2009 vs 2011) for six out of seven polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners and for 2,2',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (CB-99; p < 0.05). The 9-year-old children had similarly decreasing serum concentrations of all seven PBDE congeners, CB-99, and 2,2',3,4,4',5'- and 2,3,3',4,4',6-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-138/158) with year of serum collection (2009 vs 2011; p < 0.05). In mixed effect models accounting for weight gain as the children aged from 7 to 9 years, we observed an annual decrease (-8.3% to -13.4%) in tri- to hexaBDE concentrations (p < 0.001), except for 2,2',3,4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-85) and 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-153). The concentrations of these congeners were not associated with time of serum collection and instead showed an -0.9% to -2.6% decrease per kilogram of weight gain during the study period (p < 0.05). In the case of tetra- to heptachlorobiphenyls, we observed -0.5% to -0.7% decrease in serum concentration per kilogram of weight gain (p < 0.05) and -3.0% to -3.7% decrease in serum concentration per year of aging (p < 0.05), except for 2,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (CB-118) and 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153), which were not associated with time of serum draw. 2,2-Bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethene (p,p'-DDE) decreased -2.4%/kg of weight gain between the two sampling points (p < 0.001). These findings suggest that as children grow, dilution in a larger body size plays an important role in explaining reductions in body burden in the case of traditional POPs such as PCBs and p,p'-DDE. By contrast, in the case of PBDEs, reductions are likely explained by reduction in exposure, as illustrated by decreased concentrations in more recent years, possibly amplified by presumed shorter biological half-life than other POPs.

In a Policy Forum, Irva Hertz-Picciotto and colleagues review the scientific evidence linking organophosphate pesticides to cognitive, behavioral, and neurological deficits in children and recommend actions to reduce exposures.

Phthalates are known endocrine disruptors and found in almost all people with several associated adverse health outcomes reported in humans and animal models. Limited data are available on the relationship between exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals and the human metabolome. We examined the relationship of metabolomic profiles in plasma and urine of 115 pregnant women with eleven urine phthalate metabolites measured at 26 weeks of gestation to identify potential biomarkers and relevant pathways. Targeted metabolomics was performed by selected reaction monitoring liquid chromatography and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry to measure 415 metabolites in plasma and 151 metabolites in urine samples. We have chosen metabolites with the best defined peaks for more detailed analysis (138 in plasma and 40 in urine). Relationship between urine phthalate metabolites and concurrent metabolomic markers in plasma and urine suggested potential involvement of diverse pathways including lipid, steroid, and nucleic acid metabolism and enhanced inflammatory response. Most of the correlations were positive for both urine and plasma, and further confirmed by regression and PCA analysis. However, after the FDR adjustment for multiple comparisons, only 9 urine associations remained statistically significant (q-values 0.0001-0.0451), including Nicotinamide mononucleotide, Cysteine T2, Cystine, and L-Aspartic acid. Additionally, we found negative associations of maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) with more than 20 metabolomic markers related to lipid and amino-acid metabolism and inflammation pathways in plasma (p = 0.01-0.0004), while Mevalonic acid was positively associated (p = 0.009). Nicotinic acid, the only significant metabolite in urine, had a positive association with maternal BMI (p = 0.002). In summary, when evaluated in the context of metabolic pathways, the findings suggest enhanced lipid biogenesis, inflammation and altered nucleic acid metabolism in association with higher phthalate levels. These results provide new insights into the relationship between phthalates, common in most human populations, and metabolomics, a novel approach to exposure and health biomonitoring.

California has proposed limiting agricultural pesticide use within 0.4 km of schools and childcare facilities. However, the 0.4-km buffer may not be appropriate for all pesticides because of differing toxicities, fate, and application methods. Living near pesticide use has been associated with poorer birth outcomes, neurodevelopment, and respiratory function in children. More research about exposures in schools, childcare facilities, and homes is needed. Despite incomplete science, this regulation is an important step to reduce potential exposures to children. The most vulnerable exposure period may be in utero, and future regulations should also aim to reduce exposures to pregnant women.

Flame retardants are commonly used in consumer products found in U.S. households. Restrictions on the use of polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants have resulted in increased use of replacement chemicals, including Firemaster 550® (FM 550®) and organophosphate flame retardants (PFRs): tris(1,3- dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP); tris(chloropropyl) phosphate (TCIPP); tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP); and triphenyl phosphate (TPHP). Animal research suggests that PFRs may affect neurodevelopment through noncholinergic mechanisms similar to some organophosphate (OP) pesticides. Despite the widespread presence of these compounds in home environments, and their structural similarity to neurotoxic OP pesticides, understanding of human exposure and health effects of PFRs is limited. We measured four urinary PFR metabolites from pregnant women in the CHAMACOS birth cohort study (n = 310) and assessed neurodevelopment of their children at age 7. Metabolites of TDCIPP (BDCIPP: bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate) and TPHP (DPHP: diphenyl phosphate) were detected in >75% of urine samples, and isopropylphenyl phenyl phosphate (ip-PPP), a metabolite of one component of FM 550®, was detected in 72% of urine samples. We observed decreases of 2.9 points (95% Confidence Interval (CI): -6.3, 0.5) and 3.9 points (95% CI: -7.3,-0.5) in Full-Scale intelligence quotient and Working Memory, respectively, for each ten-fold increase in DPHP in adjusted regression models (n = 248). Decreases in Full-Scale IQ and Working Memory were greater in models of the molar sum of the PFR metabolites compared to the DPHP models. This is the first study to examine PFR and FM 550® exposures and potential neurodevelopmental outcomes in pregnant women and children. Additional research is warranted.

ObjectiveUsing data from the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) birth cohort study, we assessed the association of in utero exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenylethylene (DDE) with child adiposity at age 12.MethodsWe included 240 children with o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT, and p,p'-DDE concentrations measured in maternal serum collected during pregnancy (ng/g lipid) and complete 12-year follow-up data. Age- and sex-specific body mass index (BMI) z-scores were calculated from CDC growth charts. Children with BMI z-scores ≥ 85th percentile were classified as overweight or obese.ResultsAt 12 years, BMI z-score averaged 1.09 (±1.03) and 55.4% of children were overweight or obese. Prenatal DDT and DDE exposure was associated with several adiposity measures in boys but not girls. Among boys, 10-fold increases in prenatal DDT and DDE concentrations were associated with increased BMI z-score (o,p'-DDT, adj-β=0.37, 95% CI: 0.08, 0.65; p,p'-DDT, adj-β = 0.26, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.48; p,p'-DDE, adj-β = 0.31, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.59). Results for girls were nonsignificant. The difference by sex persisted after considering pubertal status.ConclusionsThese results support the chemical obesogen hypothesis, that in utero exposure to DDT and DDE may increase risk of obesity in males later in life.

Social media have become a normative part of culture, with both positive and negative implications. More recently, studies demonstrate that social media may contribute to mental health issues. This essay seeks to understand this phenomenon through the lens of self-objectification and self-comparison theories concerning why some who use social media to gain the approval of others as the foundation for their identity still end up unhappy after receiving such approval. The essay proposes that people who engage in this behavior remain unhappy because they do not understand their status as an image-bearer of God, and how images are to function in society. A sound understanding of images is essential. The essay engages Biblical theology as a helpful guide to demonstrate that social identities are to be cultivated and formed through friendship. Friendships help shape who we are as human beings and build a sense of belonging through the organic formation of a community., SOCIAL MEDIA AND IDENTITY When social media were introduced in the early 2000s, they offered something new: the ability to connect with others in real time without being physically with [...]

Ethiopia is one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse countries. Here, the authors look at genetic and cultural variation in 1,214 Ethiopians to unravel the relationship between genetic admixture and cultural factors.

Pre-pregnancy maternal obesity is associated with adverse offspring outcomes at birth and later in life. Individual studies have shown that epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation could contribute. Within the Pregnancy and Childhood Epigenetics (PACE) Consortium, we meta-analysed the association between pre-pregnancy maternal BMI and methylation at over 450,000 sites in newborn blood DNA, across 19 cohorts (9,340 mother-newborn pairs). We attempted to infer causality by comparing the effects of maternal versus paternal BMI and incorporating genetic variation. In four additional cohorts (1,817 mother-child pairs), we meta-analysed the association between maternal BMI at the start of pregnancy and blood methylation in adolescents. In newborns, maternal BMI was associated with small (

ObjectivesOur objective was to examine the relationship between residential proximity to agricultural fumigant use and neurodevelopment in 7-year old children.MethodsParticipants were living in the agricultural Salinas Valley, California and enrolled in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children Of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study. We administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (4th Edition) to assess cognition and the Behavioral Assessment System for Children (2nd Edition) to assess behavior. We estimated agricultural fumigant use within 3, 5 and 8km of residences during pregnancy and from birth to age 7 using California's Pesticide Use Report data. We evaluated the association between prenatal (n = 285) and postnatal (n = 255) residential proximity to agricultural use of methyl bromide, chloropicrin, metam sodium and 1,3-dichloropropene with neurodevelopment.ResultsWe observed decreases of 2.6 points (95% Confidence Interval (CI): -5.2, 0.0) and 2.4 points (95% CI: -4.7, -0.2) in Full-Scale intelligence quotient for each ten-fold increase in methyl bromide and chloropicrin use within 8km of the child's residences from birth to 7-years of age, respectively. There were no associations between residential proximity to use of other fumigants and cognition or proximity to use of any fumigant and hyperactivity or attention problems. These findings should be explored in larger studies.

BackgroundElemental sulfur, "the oldest of all pesticides," is the most heavily used agricultural pesticide in California and Europe. Sulfur is considered relatively safe and is used in both conventional and organic farming systems. Adverse respiratory effects have been reported in applicators and animals, but the effect on residential populations, and especially on children living in proximity to fields treated with elemental sulfur, is not known.ObjectivesWe evaluated associations between residential proximity to elemental sulfur applications and respiratory symptoms and spirometry of children living in an agricultural community.MethodsParticipants were enrolled in the CHAMACOS longitudinal birth cohort. We collected respiratory symptomatology for 347 children at 7 y of age and measured spirometry on a subset of 279. Of these, estimations of proximity to sulfur application and relevant covariate data were available for 237 and 205 children for whom we had symptomatology information and FEV1 measurements, respectively. Data from the California Pesticide Use Reporting System were used to estimate the amount of elemental sulfur applied within 0.5, 1, and 3km of a child's residence during the week, month, and 12 mo prior to pulmonary evaluation. Regression models controlled for maternal smoking during pregnancy; season of birth; PM2.5 (particulate matter ≤2.5mm in aerodynamic diameter); breast feeding duration; child's sex, age, and height; technician; and other covariates.ResultsAdverse associations with respiratory outcomes were found for sulfur applications within 0.5- and 1-km radii. Specifically, asthma medication usage and respiratory symptoms increased [OR=3.51; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.50, 8.23, p=0.004; OR=2.09; 95% CI: 1.27, 3.46, p=0.004, respectively] and FEV1 decreased (β=−0.143; 95% CI: −0.248, −0.039, p=0.008) per 10-fold increase in the estimated amount of sulfur used within 1 km of child residence during the year prior to pulmonary evaluation.ConclusionsThis study suggests that elemental sulfur use, allowed in both organic and conventional farming, in close proximity to residential areas, may adversely affect children's respiratory health. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP528.