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Perceived ethnic discrimination is known to decrease minorities’ life satisfaction. This research investigates the extent to which minorities’ local and transnational co-ethnic social ties mitigate the negative effects of perceived discrimination on life satisfaction. Put differently, focusing on the experiences of Turkish and Moroccan minorities, we discuss whether co-ethnic social ties, both locally and transnationally embedded, can be considered as coping mechanisms against perceived discrimination. Furthermore, we investigate whether these mechanisms work differently for first- and second-generation minorities. Using Netherlands Longitudinal Life-course Study, we reveal that perceived discrimination is positively associated with local co-ethnic social ties in Netherlands which consequently predicts higher life satisfaction for both generations. Surprisingly, we also show that only among the second generation perceived discrimination is associated with stronger transnational co-ethnic social ties, but not the first generation. Having these transnational ties however are beneficial for life satisfaction of both generations. Consequently, we highlight the importance of recognizing transnational embeddedness of minorities and studying the effects transnational co-ethnic social ties on subjective well-being outcomes especially for second-generation minorities.

The transnational social networks of migrants are extensively studied, but little is known about the associations between transnational social networks and individual migration trajectories over the course of migrants’ lives. In this paper, we reconstruct the migration trajectories and transnational social networks of African migrants until their arrival in Europe and develop a typology that reflects the diversity of their trajectories. Based on unique retrospective life-history data of the MAFE project, our comparative perspective highlights the diversity of African migrants residing in Europe, the routes that they took before arriving in Europe and the types of transnational networks they had before, during and after migrating. Furthermore, we discuss the socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics of migrants within each typology. Consequently, this paper challenges the singular African migration stereotype and draws attention to the associations between transnational social networks and migration trajectories.

The reintegration constituents of displaced populations are understudied, despite increased attention being paid to return and reintegration outcomes. In this paper, we explore how various factors related to the migration cycle, including returnees' displacement experiences and return conditions, are associated with reintegration outcomes. For this aim, we take a multidimensional approach to the measurement of reintegration. In addition to objective reintegration outcomes, measured by food security, we address subjective assessments such as feelings of reintegration. We focus on the unique case of returnees in Burundi and make use of a database consisting of a sample of 189 former internally displaced persons (IDPs) and 194 former refugees, which allows for a comparison of the reintegration of these two groups. The analyses highlight that objective and subjective reintegration do not necessarily align and that displacement experiences and return conditions relate to reintegration outcomes in different ways. Land and livestock ownership upon return are for example positively correlated with feelings of reintegration and subjective wealth, whereas community support is crucial to cope with food security. Moreover, we show considerable variation in reintegration outcomes between refugees and IDPs, with refugees showing more positive outcomes when individual characteristics are controlled for. This result calls for more in-depth research on the contextual and structural factors that elucidate the variation across groups going beyond individual level explanations. Overall, the findings emphasise the diversity in reintegration outcomes and identify the role of experiences during displacement and return conditions for the reintegration of refugees and IDPs.

En Ruanda, los refugiados congoleses tienen la misma libertad de circulación y el mismo derecho al trabajo que los ciudadanos ruandeses, pero las experiencias y las actividades económicas de estas dos poblaciones son muy diferentes.

This paper studies to what extent and in what ways access to educational services and schooling outcomes of local children are influenced by the presence of a refugee camp in or around their community. Taking the case of Congolese refugees in Rwanda and relying on household survey data collected in 2016, we investigate the availability of schools, schooling rates and access to school-based feeding programs in communities closer to and further away from three refugee camps: Gihembe, Kiziba and Kigeme. Furthermore, we conduct a cohort analysis to compare the years of schooling and primary school completion of Rwandans residing at different distances from each of these camps. Finally, on the basis of focus group discussions conducted among locals, we provide further insights into the ways in which locals perceive the effects of the refugee camp's presence on their children's access to schooling and educational outcomes. Our results highlight that living nearby a refugee camp does not have a negative influence on the education of local children. On the contrary, children residing closer to the camps have better schooling outcomes, and locals residing closer to the camps have a wide array of mostly positive views regarding the effects of refugees on local education. These results contribute to the body of literature on the effects of refugees on host communities and inform policies on how refugees need not be a "burden" if long-term investments are made and the voice of the locals are heard to address their needs.

INTERACT - Researching Third Country Nationals’ Integration as a Three-way Process - Immigrants, Countries of Emigration and Countries of Immigration as Actors of Integration This MPI Europe report represents the first attempt to investigate how the activities of origin countries' regional and local institutions may improve the lives of emigrants to Member States of the European Union. INTERACT is co-financed by the European University Institute and the European Union

The MPC is co-financed by the European University Institute and the European Union. Turkey is not only a country of emigration, but also of immigration and return migration. It is a country, too, with a significant part of its population living abroad. In this paper, I take into account these various international migration patterns to provide an in-depth historical analysis of the Turkish State’s attitude towards migration and its immigrants, citizens residing abroad or returning to the country. The analysis is based on a detailed literature review, a summary of the most recent policies introduced regarding migration and in-depth interviews conducted with policy makers, government officials and academics. The analysis shows that Turkey’s socio-economic development, its economic and political expectations from migration, and contextual factors have significantly influenced its changing attitude towards migration. In conclusion, the paper draws attention to the importance of considering these factors and different migration patterns together for a more comprehensive understanding of a country’s perspective on international migration.