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Internal spacetime geometry was recently introduced to model certain quantum phenomena using spacetime metrics that are degenerate. We use the Ricci tensors of these metrics to derive a ratio of the bare up and down quark masses, obtaining $m_u/m_d = 9604/19683 \approx .4879$. This value is within the lattice QCD value at $2 \operatorname{GeV}$ in the $\overline{\operatorname{MS}}$-scheme, $.473 \pm .023$. Moreover, using the Levi-Cevita Poisson equation, we derive ratios of the dressed electron mass and bare quark masses. For a dressed electron mass of $.511 \operatorname{MeV}$, these ratios yield the bare quark masses $m_u \approx 2.2440 \operatorname{MeV}$ and $m_d \approx 4.599 \operatorname{MeV}$, which are within/near the lattice QCD values $m^{\overline{\operatorname{MS}}}_u = (2.20\pm .10) \operatorname{MeV}$ and $m^{\overline{\operatorname{MS}}}_d = (4.69 \pm .07) \operatorname{MeV}$. Finally, using $4$-accelerations, we derive the ratio $\tilde{m}_u/\tilde{m}_d = 48/49 \approx .98$ of the constituent up and down quark masses. This value is within the $.97 \sim 1$ range of constituent quark models. All of the ratios we obtain are from first principles alone, with no free or ad hoc parameters. Furthermore, and rather curiously, our derivations do not use quantum field theory, but only tools from general relativity., Comment: 24 pages. Comments welcome

'Internal spacetime' is a modification of general relativity that was recently introduced as an approximate spacetime geometric model of quantum nonlocality. In an internal spacetime, time is stationary along the worldlines of fundamental (dust) particles. Consequently, the dimensions of tangent spaces at different points of spacetime vary, and spin wavefunction collapse is modeled by the projection from one tangent space to another. In this article we develop spinors on an internal spacetime, and construct a new Dirac-like Lagrangian $\mathcal{L} = \bar{\psi}(i \slashed \partial - \hat{\omega}) \psi$ whose equations of motion describe their couplings and interactions. Furthermore, we show that hidden within $\mathcal{L}$ is the entire standard model: $\mathcal{L}$ contains precisely three generations of quarks and leptons, the electroweak gauge bosons, the Higgs boson, and one new massive spin-$2$ boson; gluons are considered in a companion article. Specifically, we are able to derive the correct spin, electric charge, and color charge of each standard model particle, as well as predict the existence of a new boson., Comment: 25 pages. Final version. (This paper is a companion to arXiv:1908.09631 and partly replaces its earlier versions; two tables and one figure here also appear in the 'Preliminaries' section of its final version.)

We study a new class of quiver algebras on surfaces, called 'geodesic ghor algebras'. These algebras generalize cancellative dimer algebras on a torus to higher genus surfaces, where the relations come from perfect matchings rather than a potential. Although cancellative dimer algebras on a torus are noncommutative crepant resolutions, the center of any dimer algebra on a higher genus surface is just the polynomial ring in one variable, and so the center and surface are unrelated. In contrast, we establish a rich interplay between the central geometry of geodesic ghor algebras and the topology of the surface in which they are embedded. Furthermore, we show that noetherian central localizations of such algebras are endomorphism rings of modules over their centers., Comment: 27 pages. The main results stated in the companion article arXiv:2101.10843 are proved here. Comments welcome!

Cancellative dimer algebras on a torus have many nice algebraic and homological properties. However, these nice properties disappear for dimer algebras on higher genus surfaces. We consider a new class of quiver algebras on surfaces, called 'geodesic ghor algebras', that reduce to cancellative dimer algebras on a torus, yet continue to have nice properties on higher genus surfaces. These algebras exhibit a rich interplay between their central geometry and the topology of the surface. We show that (nontrivial) geodesic ghor algebras do in fact exist, and give explicit descriptions of their central geometry. This article serves a companion to the article 'A generalization of cancellative dimer algebras to hyperbolic surfaces', where the main statement is proven., Comment: 12 pages. Comments welcome

To incorporate quantum nonlocality into general relativity, we propose that the preparation and measurement of a quantum system are simultaneous events. To make progress in realizing this proposal, we introduce a spacetime geometry that is endowed with particles which have no distinct points in their worldlines; we call these particles 'pointons'. This new geometry recently arose in nonnoetherian algebraic geometry. We show that on such a spacetime, metrics are degenerate and tangent spaces have variable dimension. This variability then implies that pointons are spin-$\tfrac 12$ fermions that satisfy the Born rule, where a projective measurement of spin corresponds to an actual projection of tangent spaces of different dimensions. Furthermore, the $4$-velocities of pointons are necessarily replaced by their Hodge duals, and this transfer from vector to pseudo-tensor introduces a free choice of orientation that we identify with electric charge. Finally, a simple composite model of electrons and photons results from the metric degeneracy, and from this we obtain a new ontological model of photon polarization., Comment: 24 pages

A composite model of the standard model particles was recently derived using the Dirac Lagrangian on a spacetime where time does not advance along the worldlines of fundamental dust particles, called an 'internal spacetime'. The aim of internal spacetime geometry is to model certain quantum phenomena using (classical) degenerate spacetime metrics. For example, on an internal spacetime, tangent spaces have variable dimension, and spin wavefunction collapse is modeled by the projection from one tangent space to another. In this article we show that the combinatorial structure of the internal Dirac Lagrangian yields precisely the standard model trivalent vertices, together with two additional new (longitudinal) Z vertices that generate the four-valent boson vertices. In particular, we are able to derive electroweak parity violation for both leptons and quarks. We also obtain new restrictions on the possible spin states that can occur in certain interactions. Finally, we determine the trivalent vertices of the new massive spin-2 boson predicted by the model., Comment: 20 pages. Two tables and one figure in the 'Preliminaries' section are from arXiv:2104.08177

Let $Z$ be the center of a nonnoetherian dimer algebra on a torus. Although $Z$ itself is also nonnoetherian, we show that it has Krull dimension $3$, and is locally noetherian on an open dense set of $\operatorname{Max}Z$. Furthermore, we show that the reduced center $Z/\operatorname{nil}Z$ is depicted by a Gorenstein singularity, and contains precisely one closed point of positive geometric dimension., Comment: 22 pages. This paper is one of four that extends and replaces arXiv:1412.1750

Let $Z$ be the center of a nonnoetherian dimer algebra $A$ on a torus. We show that the nilradical $\operatorname{nil}Z$ of $Z$ is prime, may be nonzero, and consists precisely of the central elements that vanish under a cyclic contraction of $A$. This implies that the nonnoetherian scheme $\operatorname{Spec}Z$ is irreducible. We also show that the reduced center $\hat{Z} = Z/\operatorname{nil}Z$ embeds into the center $R$ of the corresponding ghor algebra, and that their normalizations are equal. Finally, we give three characterizations of the normality of $R$, and show that if $\hat{Z}$ is normal, then it has the special form $k + J$ where $J$ is an ideal of the cycle algebra of $A$., Comment: 27 pages. Major revision. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1412.1750

Let $A$ be a nondegenerate dimer (or ghor) algebra on a torus, and let $Z$ be its center. Using cyclic contractions, we show the following are equivalent: $A$ is noetherian; $Z$ is noetherian; $A$ is a noncommutative crepant resolution; each arrow of $A$ is contained in a perfect matching whose complement supports a simple module; and the vertex corner rings $e_iAe_i$ are pairwise isomorphic., Comment: 20 pages. Replaces part of arXiv:1412.1750, with new results. Fixed problem of figures not displaying properly in the PDF of v2

A ghor algebra is the path algebra of a dimer quiver on a surface, modulo relations that come from the perfect matchings of its quiver. Such algebras arise from abelian quiver gauge theories in physics. We show that a ghor algebra $\Lambda$ on a torus is a dimer algebra (a quiver with potential) if and only if it is noetherian, and otherwise $\Lambda$ is the quotient of a dimer algebra by homotopy relations. Furthermore, we classify the simple $\Lambda$-modules of maximal dimension and give an explicit description of the center of $\Lambda$ using a special subset of perfect matchings. In our proofs we introduce formalized notions of Higgsing and the mesonic chiral ring from quiver gauge theory., Comment: 41 pages. Replaces part of arXiv:1412.1750, with new results

We show that every nondegenerate dimer algebra $A$ on a torus admits a cyclic contraction to a cancellative dimer algebra. This implies, for example, that $A$ is Calabi-Yau if and only if it is noetherian; and that the center of $A$ has Krull dimension $3$., Comment: 20 pages

Noetherian dimer algebras form a prominent class of examples of noncommutative crepant resolutions (NCCRs). However, dimer algebras which are noetherian are quite rare, and we consider the question: how close are nonnoetherian homotopy dimer algebras to being NCCRs? To address this question, we introduce a generalization of NCCRs to nonnoetherian tiled matrix rings. We show that if a noetherian dimer algebra is obtained from a nonnoetherian homotopy dimer algebra $A$ by contracting each arrow whose head has indegree 1, then $A$ is a noncommutative desingularization of its nonnoetherian center. Furthermore, if any two arrows whose tails have indegree 1 are coprime, then $A$ is a nonnoetherian NCCR., Comment: 34 pages. To appear, Glasgow Mathematical Journal

A depiction of a nonnoetherian integral domain $R$ is a special coordinate ring that provides a framework for describing the geometry of $R$. We show that if $R$ is noetherian in codimension 1, then $R$ has a unique maximal depiction $T$. In this case, the geometric dimensions of the points of $\operatorname{Spec}R$ may be computed directly from $T$. If in addition $R$ has a normal depiction $S$, then $S$ is the unique maximal depiction of $R$., Comment: 15 pages. To appear, Communications in Algebra

We establish a new fundamental class of varieties in nonnoetherian algebraic geometry related to the central geometry of dimer algebras. Specifically, given an affine algebraic variety $X$ and a finite collection of non-intersecting positive dimensional algebraic sets $Y_i \subset X$, we construct a nonnoetherian coordinate ring whose variety coincides with $X$ except that each $Y_i$ is identified as a distinct positive dimensional closed point. We then show that the noncommutative blowup of such a singularity is a noncommutative desingularization, in a suitable geometric sense., Comment: 29 pages. To appear, Journal of Noncommutative Geometry

We present a new geometry of spacetime where events may be positive dimensional. This geometry is obtained by applying the identity of indiscernibles, which is a fundamental principle of quantum statistics, to time. Quantum nonlocality arises as a natural consequence of this geometry. We also examine the ontology of the wavefunction in this framework. In particular, we show how entanglement swapping in spacetime invalidates the preparation assumption of the PBR theorem., Comment: 8 pages. Comments welcome!

Let $A$ be a dimer algebra and $Z$ its center. It is well known that if $A$ is cancellative, then $A$ and $Z$ are noetherian and $A$ is a finitely generated $Z$-module. Here we show the converse: if $A$ is non-cancellative (as almost all dimer algebras are), then $A$ and $Z$ are nonnoetherian and $A$ is an infinitely generated $Z$-module. Although $Z$ is nonnoetherian, we show that it nonetheless has Krull dimension 3 and is generically noetherian. Furthermore, we show that the reduced center is the coordinate ring for a Gorenstein algebraic variety with the strange property that it contains precisely one 'smeared-out' point of positive geometric dimension. In our proofs we introduce formalized notions of Higgsing and the mesonic chiral ring from quiver gauge theory., Comment: This paper was reorganized and expanded, with new results, into the four papers: arXiv:1711.09771; arXiv:1805.08047; arXiv:1902.11299; and arXiv:1903.10460

We introduce new mathematical aspects of the Bell states using matrix factorizations, nonnoetherian singularities, and noncommutative blowups. A matrix factorization of a polynomial $p$ consists of two matrices $\phi_1,\phi_2$ such that $\phi_1\phi_2 = \phi_2\phi_1 = p \operatorname{id}$. Using this notion, we show how the Bell states emerge from the separable product of two mixtures, by defining pure states over complex matrices rather than just the complex numbers. We then show in an idealized algebraic setting that pure states are supported on nonnoetherian singularities. Moreover, we find that the collapse of a Bell state is intimately related to the representation theory of the noncommutative blowup along its singular support. This presents an exchange in geometry: the nonlocal commutative spacetime of the entangled state emerges from an underlying local noncommutative spacetime., Comment: 18 pages. Previously titled "Quantum entanglement, emergence, and noncommutative blowups"

Let $\psi: A \to A'$ be a cyclic contraction of dimer algebras, with $A$ non-cancellative and $A'$ cancellative. $A'$ is then prime, noetherian, and a finitely generated module over its center. In contrast, $A$ is often not prime, nonnoetherian, and an infinitely generated module over its center. We present certain Morita equivalences that relate the representation theory of $A$ with that of $A'$. We then characterize the Azumaya locus of $A$ in terms of the Azumaya locus of $A'$, and give an explicit classification of the simple $A$-modules parameterized by the Azumaya locus. Furthermore, we show that if the smooth and Azumaya loci of $A'$ coincide, then the smooth and Azumaya loci of $A$ coincide. This provides the first known class of algebras that are nonnoetherian and infinitely generated modules over their centers, with the property that their smooth and Azumaya loci coincide., Comment: 23 pages. Major revision. Previously titled "Morita equivalences from Higgsing toric superpotential algebras"

We show that any dimer model can be made cancellative without changing the characteristic polygon., Comment: 16 pages, 17 figures

We introduce a theory of geometry for nonnoetherian commutative algebras with finite Krull dimension. In particular, we establish new notions of normalization and height: depiction (a special noetherian overring) and geometric codimension. The resulting geometries are algebraic varieties with positive dimensional points, and are thus inherently nonlocal. These notions also give rise to new equivalent characterizations of noetherianity that are primarily geometric. We then consider an application to quiver algebras whose simple modules of maximal dimension are one dimensional at each vertex. We show that the vertex corner rings of $A$ are all isomorphic if and only if $A$ is noetherian, if and only if the center $Z$ of $A$ is noetherian, if and only if $A$ is a finitely generated $Z$-module. Furthermore, we show that $Z$ is depicted by a commutative algebra generated by the cycles in its quiver. We conclude with an example of a quiver algebra where projective dimension and geometric codimension, rather than height, coincide., Comment: 25 pages. Final version. To appear in J. Algebra Appl

We introduce a geometric realization of noncommutative singularity resolutions. To do this, we first present a new conjectural method of obtaining conventional resolutions using coordinate rings of matrix-valued functions. We verify this conjecture for all cyclic quotient surface singularities, the Kleinian D_n and E_6 surface singularities, the conifold singularity, and a non-isolated singularity, using appropriate quiver algebras. This conjecture provides a possible new generalization of the classical McKay correspondence. Then, using symplectic reduction within these rings, we obtain new, non-conventional resolutions that are hidden if only commutative functions are considered. Geometrically, these non-conventional resolutions result from shrinking exceptional loci to ramified (non-Azumaya) point-like spheres., Comment: 42 pages. Comments welcome

A superpotential algebra is square if its quiver admits an embedding into a two-torus such that the image of its underlying graph is a square grid, possibly with diagonal edges in the unit squares; examples are provided by dimer models in physics. Such an embedding reveals much of the algebras representation theory through a device we introduce called an impression. Let A be a square superpotential algebra, Z its center, and \mathfrak{m} the maximal ideal at the origin of Spec(Z). Using an impression, we give a classification of all simple A-modules up to isomorphism, and give algebraic and homological characterizations of the simple A-modules of maximal k-dimension; show that Z is a 3-dimensional normal toric domain and Z_{\mathfrak{m}} is Gorenstein, by determining transcendence bases and Z-regular sequences; and show that A_{\mathfrak{m}} is a noncommutative crepant resolution of Z_{\mathfrak{m}}, and thus a local Calabi-Yau algebra. A particular class of square superpotential algebras, the Y^{p,q} algebras, is considered in detail. We show that the Azumaya and smooth loci of the centers coincide, and propose that each ramified maximal ideal sitting over the singular locus is the exceptional locus of a blowup shrunk to zero size., Comment: 53 pages. Final version. To appear in J. Algebra

The AdS/CFT correspondence for N=1 Super conformal field theories suggests that dibaryon operators are dual to D-brane states that are point like in AdS and that wrap various cycles in a Sasaki-Einstein manifold. It also suggests that the volume of the D-brane gives the R-charge of the corresponding operator. We elucidate various aspects of this correspondence, paying particular care to study the case of branes at the tip of three different Calabi Yau cones. We show that the arrows in the quiver diagram describing the conformal field theory can be thought of as global sections of a non-trivial holomorphic vector bundle over the Calabi-Yau geometry. We suggest that the zero locus of these sections gives the geometric map that lets us tie a particular dibaryon to a holomorphic cycle, by intersecting the corresponding cycle with the Sasaki-Einstein locus at fixed distance from the origin. We show that this can be compared with the corresponding volumes of the Sasaki-Einstein space and that one gets exact agreement between the volumes of the cycles identified with this procedure and the R-charges of the operators., Comment: 30 pages, 1 fig