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Over the past thirty years, the red gorgonian Paramuricea clavata in the Mediterranean Sea has faced increasing threats, including heat waves and human activities such as artisanal and recreational fishing. Epibiosis on damaged gorgonian colonies is generally used as an indirect indication of stressed conditions. The density and height of P. clavata and the percentage of colonies affected by epibiosis and entangled in lost fishing gear were monitored to investigate the phenomenon and its trend over time in the Ligurian Sea. Analyses were based on transects collected during ROV campaigns between 2015 and 2022 at depths of 33-90 m. A strong correlation was observed between fishing efforts in the study area and the level of epibiosis. Maximal percentages of colonies affected by epibiosis and entanglement were recorded at depths of 50-70 m. Temporally, marine heat waves before 2019 were identified as the primary cause of damage to P. clavata . The decrease in epibiosis percentages after 2019, despite the 2022 heat wave, may be due to a quick recovery ability of the populations and a reduction in fishing activities during the COVID-19 lockdown in 2020. Long-term monitoring programmes are essential to understand the changes in marine benthic communities exposed to different stressors.

Plastic debris carry fouling a variety of class-size organisms, among them harmful microorganisms that potentially play a role in the dispersal of allochthonous species and toxic compounds with ecological impacts on the marine environment and human health. We analyzed samples of marine plastics floating at the sea surface using a molecular qPCR assay to quantify the attached microalgal taxa, in particular, harmful species. Diatoms were the most abundant group of plastic colonizers with maximum abundance of 8.2 × 10 4  cells cm -2 of plastics, the maximum abundance of dinoflagellates amounted to 1.1 × 10 3  cells cm -2 of plastics. The most abundant harmful microalgal taxon was the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia spp., including at least 12 toxic species, and the dinoflagellate Ostreopsis cf. ovata with 6606 and 259 cells cm -2 , respectively. The abundance of other harmful microalgal species including the toxic allochthonous dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum ranged from 1 to 73 cells cm -2 . In the present study, a direct relationship between the abundance of harmful algal species colonizing the plastic substrates and their toxin production was found. The levels of potential toxins on plastic samples ranged from 10 1 to 10 2  ng cm -2 , considering the various toxin families produced by the colonized harmful microalgal species. We also measured the rate of adhesion by several target microalgal species. It ranged from 1.8 to 0.3 day -1 demonstrating the capacity of plastic substrate colonizing rapidly by microalgae. The present study reports the first estimates of molecular quantification of microorganisms including toxin producing species that can colonize plastics. Such findings provide important insights for improving the monitoring practice of plastics and illustrate how the epi-plastic community can exacerbate the harmful effects of plastics by dispersal, acting as an alien and toxic species carrier and potentially being ingested through the marine trophic web., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)