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Yellow leaf disease (YLD) is the most destructive disease of betel palm (Areca catechu). A strong association between YLD and areca palm velarivirus 1 (APV1) has been observed. However, the causal relationship between APV1 and disease, and the transmission mode, warrant further investigation. This work showed that APV1 was transmitted by both Ferrisia virgata and Pseudococcus cryptus mealybugs and caused YLD symptoms in betel palm seedlings; therefore, we demonstrate that APV1 is a causal agent of YLD. APV1 was detected in the stylets, foreguts, midguts, and hindguts of the vectors via both immunocapture reverse transcription PCR and immunofluorescence assays. APV1 was not transmitted transovarially from viruliferous female F. virgata to their progeny. In summary, the transmission of APV1 by F. virgata may occur in a noncirculative, semipersistent manner. This study fills important gaps in our knowledge of velarivirus transmission, which is critical for developing YLD management practices.

Recent and rapid expansion of rubber [Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.) Müll. Arg.] plantations requires understanding their effects on soil physicochemical properties and soil quality. An ideal testbed for analyzing such land-use change and its impacts is Hainan Island, the largest tropical island in China, which in recent decades has seen a dramatic expansion in the rubber industry. Based on 14 soil physicochemical properties at two soil depths (0-20 and 20-40 cm), a comprehensive assessment index was established using principal component analysis to assess soil qualities under rubber plantations (RPs; monoculture and intercropping) and five additional land-use types (areca palm [Areca L.], eucalyptus [Eucalyptus loxophleba Benth.] and banana [Musa L.] plantations, secondary forest, and tropical rainforest [TR]). The following results were obtained: (a) total porosity, ammoniacal N, total P, available P, and soil organic matter were vital soil physicochemical properties contributing to the comprehensive assessment index; (b) the comprehensive assessment indices of RPs were significantly lower than those of TR and areca palm plantation; (c) intercropping improves most soil physicochemical properties in RPs comparing monoculture and intercropped RPs; and (d) redundancy analysis demonstrated that land-use type interacted with climatic, geographical, and edaphic factors and collectively explained about half of the variation in the soil physicochemical properties across the study area. Deteriorating soil quality by converting TR to RPs and other land-use types provides another reason to protect TRs, especially on area-limited islands like Hainan.

Areca palm, rubber tree, and coffee are always planted adjacent to each other or intercropped with each other, and Colletotrichum siamense was found to be the dominant species of Colletotrichum from these crops in Hainan, China. To study the population structure, pathogenicity, and fungicide sensitivity of C. siamense from these three crops in Hainan, isolates were first identified by their morphological characteristics and multilocus phylogeny. Then both permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) and pairwise FST analysis showed that the original host and geographical origin (counties) had significant effects on genetic variation in the C. siamense population, explaining 5.6% and 16.3% of genetic variation, respectively. There were significant genetic differentiations between coffee and rubber tree populations but the genetic differentiation was small (FST = 0.04), while significant differentiations were observed among all populations from different counties except those between Haikou and Chengmai. Pathogenicity analysis using artificial inoculation showed that isolates had significantly higher disease incidence and diseased lesion diameter on wounded leaves than on nonwounded leaves. However, the original host of an isolate and geographical origin did not significantly affect the pathogenicity of the C. siamense populations from these three hosts. In vitro tests showed that there were no significant differences in the sensitivity of C. siamense populations to carbendazim, prochloraz, difenoconazole, and propiconazole from different original hosts and geographical origins. The present study suggests that host specialization of C. siamense has not occurred yet in coffee, rubber tree, and areca palm.

Global warming that occurs due to rapid population growth and increasing of energy consumption makes energy supply decreases. Energy source from non-renewable energy (fossil fuel) cause increasing greenhouse gas emission level and scarcity of natural resources. This paper reports that agricultural residues especially areca palm wastes had been widely used as an alternative energy source to reducing fossil fuel consumption. About 4.780.000 tones areca palm produced per year around the world and the shell was burned in open air or just thrown in the environment. This work aimed to investigate energy potential from areca palm shell using direct combustion and pyrolysis method also do analysis about this technology from environmental point of view and that contribution for sustainable uses.

Areca palm yellow leaf (AYL) disease caused by the 16SrI group phytoplasma is a serious threat to the development of the Areca palm industry in China. The 16S rRNA gene sequence was utilized to establish a rapid and efficient detection system efficient for the 16SrI-B subgroup AYL phytoplasma in China by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). The results showed that two sets of LAMP detection primers, 16SrDNA-2 and 16SrDNA-3, were efficient for 16SrIB subgroup AYL phytoplasma in China, with positive results appearing under reaction conditions of 64oC for 40 min. The lowest detection limit for the two LAMP detection assays was the same at 200 ag/μl, namely approximately 53 copies/μl of the target fragments. Phytoplasma was detected in all AYL disease samples from Baoting, Tunchang, and Wanning counties in Hainan province using the two sets of LAMP primers 16SrDNA-2 and 16SrDNA-3, whereas no phytoplasma was detected in the negative control. The LAMP method established in this study with comparatively high sensitivity and stability, provides reliable results that could be visually detected, making it suitable for application and research in rapid diagnosis of AYL disease, detection of seedlings with the pathogen and breeding of disease-resistant Areca palm varieties.

Yellow leaf disease (YLD) is an economically important disease affecting betel palm in several countries, the cause of which remains unclear despite associations with putative agents, including phytoplasmas. In this study, we screened the potential casual agents associated with YLD in Hainan, China using next-generation sequencing and revealed the association of areca palm velarivirus 1 (APV1) with the YLD-affected palm. The complete genome of the APV1-WNY isolate was determined to be 17,546 nucleotides in length, approximately 1.5 kb longer than the previously reported APV1_HN genome. Transmission electron microscopy showed that APV1 particles are flexuous and filamentous, a typical morphology of species in the Closteroviridae family. Comparison of symptomatic and symptomless tree populations showed a strong association between APV1 and YLD. APV1 was detected in Pseudococcus sp. mealybugs sampled from YLD-affected trees in many locations, suggesting that mealybugs are a potential transmission vector for APV1. Although further studies are needed to confirm a causal relationship, these results provide timely information for the prevention and management of YLD associated with APV1.

Areca palm has been widely planted by the people of the Asahan Regency. This plant is cultivated not only by the farmers, but also by many people living in this regency. Therefore, an expert system is needed to help villagers in detecting areca palm desease. In areca palm cultivation, pests and diseases attack always happen. The purpose of this research is to apply an expert system as a tool to diagnose and also provide advice for control. This expert system, in the form of a consultation scenario, can be done by answering every question (yes or no); all answers are compared to the areca palm plants needs based-on expert experience. The inference method used is forward chaining. The output of this system is the types of diseases, percentages, symptoms, definitions, treatment, and prevention. Keywords: Areca Palm, Expert System, Forward Chaining.

The current trend in sustainable architecture is the use of natural and regional materials to reduce those that consume more energy in their production and those that are highly polluting due to the amounts of CO2, damaging the environment. Concrete is one of the most materials used in construction. Still, it is possible to replace cement with other sustainable or vernacular materials. The objective of the present work is the mechanical characterization of the stem of the areca palm (Dypsis lutescens and Chrysalidocarpus lutescens); its obtention is very common in the area of Tampico-Madero-Altamira (Mexico); the easy planting and reproduction make possible to grow it elsewhere. Tests for compressive, flexural, and mechanical resistance, as well as durability, were carried out using Mexican standards. The maximum bending moment that a 2.5m long horizontal structure can support is estimated. The palm shows an acceptable resistance and a resistant moment of up to 6680 ± 0007kg.cm. We also found that durability may be possible for more than ten years. When a roof structure based on a shingle is made with this plant, including supports every 2.2m, it is possible to use it in vernacular house construction with minimal deformation. The use of this material can reduce the environmental impact by avoiding products derived from cement.

We present an amended description of the bacterial species Xanthomonas vasicola to include the causative agent of banana Xanthomonas wilt, as well as strains that cause disease on Areca palm, Tripsacum grass, sugarcane, and maize. Genome-sequence data reveal that these strains all share more than 98% average nucleotide with each other and with the type strain. Our analyses and proposals should help to resolve the taxonomic confusion that surrounds some of these pathogens and help to prevent future use of invalid names. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2020 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY 4.0 International license .

Genus Colletotrichum is one of the most important genera of plant-pathogenic fungi affecting numerous species, particularly tropical and subtropical crops and fruit trees. In this study, 43 Colletotrichum strains were isolated from areca palm leaves with anthracnose symptoms in 11 areca palm plantations in eight counties of Hainan, China. Based on the morphology, phylogenetic analysis of six loci (internal transcribed spacer, actin, chitin synthase 1, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, β-tubulin, and mating type locus MAT1-2), and pathogenicity tests, eight Colletotrichum species were distinguished, comprising five previously known species (C. cordylinicola, C. fructicola, C. gloeosporioides, C. siamense, and C. tropicale), one unidentified Colletotrichum species, a new species (C. arecicola) in the gloeosporioides species complex, and C. karstii in the boninense species complex. C. siamense was the most common species found in areca palm in Hainan, followed by C. arecicola. Pathogenicity tests showed that all eight species could cause anthracnose symptoms on areca palm leaves using a wound inoculation method and that the isolates from the gloeosporioides species complex caused larger lesions than the isolates from the boninense species complex. Further research is needed to understand the epidemiology of these pathogenic species on areca palm in order to develop management strategies.

Areca palm leaves derived porous carbon material as the electrode for symmetrical solid-state supercapacitors (SSCs). The areca palm leaves biomass was processed using a fast carbonization method followed by in situ chemical activation. The structures and compositions of these biomass-derived carbon materials were characterized using X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, respectively. One of the biomass-derived porous carbon materials, AR2, was a lightweight carbon material that possessed a large surface area of 876 m2 g–1. Electrochemical studies revealed that AR2 possessed a high specific capacitance of 262 F g–1 at a scan rate of 5 mV s–1. We fabricated symmetrical SSCs featuring these carbon material as major (80 wt%) components of the electrodes and poly(vinyl alcohol)–Li2SO4 as gel polymer electrolyte. The optimal supercapacitor (SAR2) involving AR2 exhibited a specific capacitance of 132 F g–1 at a current density of 0.5 A g–1 and an energy density of 10.3 W h kg–1 at a power density of 375 W kg–1, and durability of retaining 92% of its initial capacitance after 5000 cycles—performance that is the excellent values reported for devices featuring derived from biomass.

This study has been carried out in villages in the Pulau Kopung Sentajo Kuantan Singingi. A used in this research was 4 months starting july to october 2017 .The purpose of this research is to know the influence on the growth of cow urine poc seeds areca palm (areca catechu L.) .The design used in this research was a random group: ( RAK) non factorials , where S the ( fertilizer poc urine cattle consisting) of the standard treatment 5 S0: without the POC cow urine (control ), the S1: POC cow urine 50 ml / liters of water , the cow urine S2: POC 100 ml / liters of water , the S3: POC cow urine 150 ml / liters of water , the cow urine S4: poc 200 ml / liters of water . Data analyzed statistically, by test said different real give an bnj ) the first 5 percent. Parameter examined is high seeds (cm), diameter of the stem (cm), and the number of leaves (strands).Based on the research done that has been done can be concluded that: treatment the provision of organic fertilizers a liquid (POC) urine cattle had have real impact on parameter the number of leaves seeds areca palm but best S3 (the POC urine cattle 150 ml per liter of water ) with number of leaves 6,67 strands.Keywords: poc cow urine, growth, seeds, areca palm. Abstrak. Penelitian ini telah dilaksanakan di Desa Pulau Kopung Kecamatan Sentajo Raya Kabupaten Kuantan Singingi. Waktu yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah 4 bulan yang dimulai bulan Juli sampai Oktober 2017. Tujuan Penelitian ini adalah Untuk mengetahui pengaruh pemberian POC Urine sapi terhadap pertumbuhan bibit pinang (Areca catechu L.). Rancangan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah: Rancangan Acak Kelompok (RAK) non faktorial, dimana faktor S (Pupuk POC Urine Sapi yang terdiri dari 5 taraf perlakuan yaitu S0 Tanpa pemberian POC Urine Sapi (Kontrol), S1 Pemberian POC Urine Sapi 50 ml/ liter air, S2 Pemberian POC Urine Sapi 100 ml/liter air, S3 Pemberian POC Urine Sapi 150 ml/liter air, S4: Pemberian POC Urine Sapi 200 ml/liter air. Data-data dianalisis secara statistik, dengan uji lanjut beda nyata jujur (BNJ) pada taraf 5%. Parameter yang diamati adalah tinggi bibit (cm), diameter batang (cm), dan jumlah daun (helai). Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan dapat disimpulkan bahwa: Perlakuan pemberian pupuk organik cair (POC) urin sapi berpengaruh nyata terhadap parameter pengamatan jumlah daun bibit pinang dengan perlakuan terbaik S3 (Pemberian POC Urine Sapi 150 ml/liter air) dengan jumlah daun 6,67 helai.Kata kunci: POC Urine Sapi, Pertumbuhan, Bibit, Pinang.

Diffusion of water into plant materials is known to decrease their mechanical strength and stiffness but improve formability. Here, we characterize water diffusion through areca palm leaf-sheath—a model plant material, with hierarchical structure, used in eco-friendly foodware. The diffusion process is studied using mass gain measurements and in situ imaging of water transport. By treating the areca sheath as homogeneous ensemble, and incorporating effects of material swelling due­ to water absorption, a factor typically neglected in prior studies, the diffusion coefficient D w for water is estimated as (6.5 ± 2.2) × 10 −4 mm 2 s −1 . It is shown that neglecting the swelling results in gross underestimation of D w . Microstructural effects (e.g. fibre, matrix) on the diffusion are characterized using in situ imaging of the water transport at high resolution. The observations show that the water diffuses an order of magnitude faster in the matrix (8.63 × 10 −4 mm 2 s −1 ) than in the fibres (7.19 × 10 −5 mm 2 s −1 ). This non-uniformity is also reflected in the swelling-induced strain in the leaf, mapped by image correlation. Lastly, we vary salt concentration by controlled additions of NaCl and note a non-monotonic dependence of the diffusion on concentration. Implications of the results for improving foodware manufacturing processes and product life are discussed.

Iron (Fe) and Zinc (Zn) are essential nutrient elements for plant growth and development. Here, we observed the effects of Fe and Zn deficiency in seedlings of Areca catechu L. (areca palm), one of the most cultured palm trees in tropic regions. Results revealed that Fe deficiency causes strong chlorosis with the significantly decreased chlorophyll biosynthesis level and photosynthetic activities in the top third young leaf (L3) of seedlings. Zn deficiency caused light chlorosis in all three young leaves which slightly decreased chlorophyll biosynthesis and photosynthetic activities. Analysis of the Fe and Zn concentration in leaves and roots indicated that absorption and distribution of these two ions share cooperative pathways, since Zn deficiency caused Fe increasing, and vice versa. Therefore, we focused on the ZINC-IRON PERMEASE (ZIP) genes in areca trees. From the whole-genome data set we obtained, 6 ZIP genes were classified, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed with other 38 ZIP genes from model plants to find their potential functions. We also analyzed the expression pattern of AcZIP1-6 genes under Zn and Fe deficiency by transcriptomic approaches. With these results, we constructed an expression atlas of AcZIP1-6 genes in leaves and roots of areca seedlings with the dynamic expression levels under Fe and Zn deficient conditions. In conclusion, we provide evidence to understand the absorption and transport of nutrient elements, Fe and Zn, in the tropic agricultural plant A. catechu.

Previously, our group characterized two closely related viruses from Areca catechu, areca palm necrotic ringspot virus (ANRSV) and areca palm necrotic spindle-spot virus (ANSSV). These two viruses share a distinct genomic organization of leader proteases and represent the only two species of the newly established genus Arepavirus of the family Potyviridae. The biological features of the two viruses are largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the pathological properties, functional compatibility of viral elements, and interspecies interactions in the model plant, Nicotiana benthamiana. Using a newly obtained infectious clone of ANRSV, we showed that this virus induces more severe symptoms compared with ANSSV and that this is related to a rapid virus multiplication in planta. A series of hybrid viruses were constructed via the substitution of multiple elements in the ANRSV infectious clone with the counterparts of ANSSV. The replacement of either 5′-UTR-HCPro1–HCPro2 or CI effectively supported replication and systemic infection of ANRSV, whereas individual substitution of P3-7K, 9K-NIa, and NIb-CP-3′-UTR abolished viral infectivity. Finally, we demonstrated that ANRSV confers effective exclusion of ANSSV both in coinfection and super-infection assays. These results advance our understanding of fundamental aspects of these two distinct but closely related arepaviruses.

Background Areca palm (Areca catechu L.) is an important commercial crop in southeast Asia, but its cultivation is threatened by yellowing leaf disease (YLD). Areca palm velarivirus 1 (APV1) was recently associated with YLD, but little is known regarding its population and genetic diversity. To assess the diversity of YLD, the APV1 genome was sequenced in YLD samples collected from different sites in Hainan. Results Twenty new and complete APV1 genomes were identified. The APV1 isolates had highly conserved sequences in seven open reading frames (ORFs; > 95% nucleotide [nt] identity) at the 3′ terminal, but there was diversity (81–87% nt identity) in three ORFs at the 5′ terminal. Phylogenetic analysis divided the APV1 isolates into three phylogroups, with 16 isolates (> 70%) in phylogroup A. Mixed infections with different genotypes in the same tree were identified; this was closely correlated with higher levels of genetic recombination. Conclusions Phylogroup A is the most prevalent APV1 genotype in areca palm plantations in Hainan, China. Mixed infection with different genotypes can lead to genomic recombination of APV1. Our data provide a foundation for accurate diagnostics, characterization of etiology, and elucidation of the evolutionary relationships of APV1 populations.

Potyviridae is the largest family of plant-infecting RNA viruses and includes many agriculturally and economically important viral pathogens. The viruses in the family, known as potyvirids, possess single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genomes with polyprotein processing as a gene expression strategy. The N-terminal regions of potyvirid polyproteins vary greatly in sequence. Previously, we identified a novel virus species within the family, Areca palm necrotic spindle-spot virus (ANSSV), which was predicted to encode two cysteine proteases, HCPro1 and HCPro2, in tandem at the N-terminal region. Here, we present evidence showing self-cleavage activity of these two proteins and define their cis-cleavage sites. We demonstrate that HCPro2 is a viral suppressor of RNA silencing (VSR), and both the variable N-terminal and conserved C-terminal (protease domain) moieties have antisilencing activity. Intriguingly, the N-terminal region of HCPro1 also has RNA silencing suppression activity, which is, however, suppressed by its C-terminal protease domain, leading to the functional divergence of HCPro1 and HCPro2 in RNA silencing suppression. Moreover, the deletion of HCPro1 or HCPro2 in a newly created infectious clone abolishes viral infection, and the deletion mutants cannot be rescued by addition of corresponding counterparts of a potyvirus. Altogether, these data suggest that the two closely related leader proteases of ANSSV have evolved differential and essential functions to concertedly maintain viral viability. IMPORTANCE The Potyviridae represent the largest group of known plant RNA viruses and account for more than half of the viral crop damage worldwide. The leader proteases of viruses within the family vary greatly in size and arrangement and play key roles during the infection. Here, we experimentally demonstrate the presence of a distinct pattern of leader proteases, HCPro1 and HCPro2 in tandem, in a newly identified member within the family. Moreover, HCPro1 and HCPro2, which are closely related and typically characterized with a short size, have evolved contrasting RNA silencing suppression activity and seem to function in a coordinated manner to maintain viral infectivity. Altogether, the new knowledge fills a missing piece in the evolutionary relationship history of potyvirids and improves our understanding of the diversification of potyvirid genomes.

In areca nut and husk, 14 elements (As, Ca, Cd, Cl, Co, Cu, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Rb, Sb, and Zn) were determined, while 34 elements including rare earth elements were detected in the corresponding soil samples using instrumental neutron activation analysis and atomic absorption spectrometry methods, whereas the concentration levels of Hg in tested samples are negligible, perhaps, below the detection limits. No rare earth elements were detected in edible areca nut. The concentration levels of various essential elements and heavy elements such as As, Cd, and Cu present in areca nut are within the permissible levels, whereas Pb content is relatively higher than FAO/WHO's permissible levels. The order of bioaccumulation index for heavy metals in areca nut was Cd > Sb > Cu > Zn ≥ Mn ≥ Co > Pb ≥ As. Bioaccumulation index values are indicating that areca palm may not be able to accumulate other heavy elements in the edible areca nut, except for Cd. On the basis of pollution indices, Northeast Indian soil may be relatively unpolluted.

In spite of raising awareness of the environmental impacts associated to the production and utilization of plastics, in many situations, the use of plastics is advantageous, and options are still unavailable or under development, representing an opportunity to develop more sustainable options, such as less energy intensive solutions. In this work, the LCA methodology is used to evaluate the environmental impacts of boxes, bowls and plates produced using Areca palm (Areca catechu) sheath, a waste material common in southern India. The inventory is a combination of primary data from a company in India, complemented with secondary data from the Ecoinvent v2.1 (Simapro V7.3). Results show that the main contributors to the potential environmental impact categories and the most energy intensive life cycle steps, are transportation, shipping and electricity generation. Carbon footprints of 1180, 1033 and 1090 kg CO2eq/ton were obtained for Areca boxes, plates and bowls, respectively. Plates made from Areca palm sheath have lower environmental impacts than plastic plates, except in the ozone layer depletion and terrestrial toxicity impact categories. Keywords: Areca palm sheath, Life cycle assessment, Plastic containers, Renewable, Waste materials

The aluminium corrosion inhibition behaviour in the presence of Areca palm leaves (AL) extract in hydrochloric acid (0.5 M) medium was examined by chemical (mass loss), AC impedance spectroscopy, potentiodynamic polarization and surface (scanning electron microscopy) methods. Aluminium protection rates increased with an increase in the amount of AL extract to the 0.5M HCl system and decreased with increasing in the contact time of aluminium metal and temperature of 0.5M HCl solution. Arrhenius equation was applied in the determination of activation energy values. The other activation parameters such as activation entropy and enthalpy values were obtained from the transition state plot. The adsorption of AL extract species on the Al surface in 0.5M HCl solution follows the Langmuir adsorption mechanism. Tafel curves reflect the mixed (both anodic and cathodic) inhibition behaviour of green inhibitor (AL extract species) on electrode surface (Al) in 0.5M system. Impedance method indicates that the Al dissolution in hydrochloric acid environment was fully hindered by charge transfer process. The Al surface morphology was examined by applying scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques. Keywords: Aluminium, Areca palm leaves, weight loss, Arrhenius equation, Langmuir adsorption

The objective of this paper is to investigate the effect of improving indoor air quality with indoor plants. As a methodology, two target classrooms with the same size (120.64 m2) and 32 students per room were selected. Then, 48 areca palm pots (average leaf area of 300 cm2/pot) were placed, and the plant density was 14.68% of the floor area. Subjective assessment for general questions, learning motivation, perceived air quality, and SBS symptoms was conducted at 5 min after the class started and 5 min before the class ended. The results showed that the CO2 concentration by respiration of the students (average of 1873 ppm) exceeded the regulatory standard (1000 ppm), but the students did not recognize the indoor CO2 concentration. The increase in CO2 concentration in the classroom was lower in the case with plant placement (624 ppm) compared with the case without plant placement (about 1205 ppm). It was statistically proven that the CO2 concentration by respiration could be reduced by 50% if the indoor plant leaf area density were maintained at about 14.68% of the floor area. In the case with plant placement, the students perceived the indoor air quality to be 40% fresher and showed a 140% higher acceptability. Moreover, the complaining of SBS symptoms was improved by 108%, and the students’ perception that it was better to focus on learning increased by about 120%. As the awareness of sustainability increases, indoor plants will be more actively placed in the United Arab Emirates. Indoor plants not only provide a visual green effect to improve human comfort but also purify indoor air pollutants.

Globally, ~0.8 million (M) ha of land is under Areca palm (Areca catechu) plantations with annual nut production of 1.0 ​M mega grams (Mg). Areca (also called betel nut) has been principally managed in plantations for commercial nut production and a primary source of income for ~16 million people in India. A substantial portion of betel nut plantations has been developed by converting natural forests. Although Areca has vast geographical distribution with economic importance, little has been studied on its role in biomass carbon management. Therefore, the present study aims (i) to develop biomass estimation models for Areca, and (ii) to estimate biomass storage and changes in carbon stock along a chronosequence of Areca plantations. The mean aboveground and total biomass across all height classes ranged from 4 to 56 and 5–75 ​kg plant−1, respectively. Among the biomass models compared, the model that contained both plant height (H) and diameter at breast height (D) as predictor variables was the top ranked for predicting total plant biomass. The estimated total biomass carbon stocks were 7.8, 18.4, 20.5 and 20.5 ​Mg ​ha−1 in 10, 15, 25, and 35 ​yr old plantations, respectively. The biomass carbon accumulation rate ranged between 0.59 ​Mg ​ha−1 yr−1in 35 ​yr old plantations and 1.22 ​Mg ​ha−1 yr−1 in 15 ​yr old plantations. Due to their low biomass carbon storage and other associated ecosystem disservices, monoculture palm plantations play a minimal role in sustainable land management and climate change mitigation in our study area. We recommend Areca polycultures and the integration of agroforestry practices in existing monoculture Areca plantations to maintain environmental sustainability.

Most of the take away materials used today is made of plastic. This presents a huge challenge in terms of waste management and pollution. It is widely known that plastic takes several hundred to thousand years to decompose, releasing toxic substances in the process. Therefore, the aim of this work was to analyze alternatives to plastic takeaway cutlery, crockery from areca palm and coconut tree by products. This focuses on reviving the methods and knowledge that existed in the southern and central parts of the Indian subcontinent for making sustainable cutlery and crockery products used in everyday life. A market analysis, design, life cycle analysis and deeper research on the fabrication will be briefly presented.

Tirathaba rufivena Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is an important pest of areca palm, Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae), in China. The effects of azadirachtin on the development and mortality of T. rufivena were determined. All larval instars were susceptible to azadirachtin, but the stomach and contact toxicities diminished as the larvae matured. The LC25 and LC50 dosages had no effect on larval hatch when applied directly to the eggs on different days after deposition, but the LC90 treatment retarded hatch from eggs treated 1 to 3 d after deposition. The tested concentrations significantly affected the survival of neonate larvae from treated eggs, especially larvae that emerged from eggs treated 3 d after deposition. Azadirachtin also prolonged larval development and duration of the pupal stage. The percentage of adult emergence decreased, and longevity of the emerged adults was shortened, following treatment. Also, egg production and viability from females treated as larvae with azadirachtin were ...

Betel nut is the fruit of Areca palm, growing in Papua New Guinea. Mixed with limestone and stick mustard, arecoline and guvacoline, which are present in betel nut, are hydrolyzed into arecaidine and guvacine, respectively. As part of the study on dietary habits of Papuans residents, our laboratory was asked to analyze the four alkaloids in hair to document long-term exposure. Hair samples were collected from 19 adult subjects (males = 11; females = 8), by some of the authors, and were sent to the laboratory for analysis. The four alkaloids have very similar chemical structures. In order to accurately identify the drugs, two methods were developed. First, the compounds were identified using an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography system coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Then, they were quantified by an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography system coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. After decontamination with dichloromethane, hair samples were cut into very small segments and 20 mg were incubated in methanol for 2 h 30 min in an ultrasound bath. After cooling, the methanol was evaporated to dryness in presence of 20-μL octanol to prevent volatilization. Nicotine-d4 was used as an internal standard. Linearity was observed for concentrations ranging from the limit of quantification to 20 ng/mg for arecoline, arecaidine, guvacine and guvacoline. Measured concentrations were in the range 60 pg/mg to 18 ng/mg for arecoline (n = 19), 14 pg/mg to 2.5 ng/mg for guvacoline (n = 11), 63 pg/mg to 3.8 ng/mg for arecaidine (n = 11) and 100 pg/mg to 3.2 ng/mg for guvacine (n = 6). There was no correlation between concentrations of arecoline and arecaidine (ratio from 0.01 to 0.18) and guvacoline and guvacine (ratio from 0.06 to 3.50). However, the identification of these substances in hair is a good marker of consumption of betel nut and allows us to document a local practice that remains difficult to evaluate just by questioning.

Phytoplasmas that infect gramineous plants, including Napier grass stunt, sugarcane whiteleaf, sugarcane grassy shoot, and Bermuda grass whiteleaf, have been classified into two closely related groups, 16SrXI and 16SrXIV, based on the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene. Subsequently, phytoplasmas associated with coconut and Areca palm in southern India and Sri Lanka have been added into the 16SrXI group. However, the 16S rRNA gene gives relatively poor resolution between these phytoplasmas. In this study, a new set of universal phytoplasma primers that amplify approximately 1 kb of the leucyl transfer RNA synthetase (leuS) gene have been validated on a broad range of phytoplasma taxonomic groups. These have been used along with partial sequences of the secA gene to clarify the taxonomic classification of 16SrXI and 16SrXIV phytoplasmas. Based on this data, the sugarcane whiteleaf and grassy shoot phytoplasmas appear to be the same phytoplasma. The Napier grass stunt phytoplasma forms a distinct group from the Bermuda grass whiteleaf and sugarcane phytoplasmas, suggesting that Napier grass stunt should be in its own ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma sp.’. The phytoplasmas associated with coconut and arecanut in southern India and Sri Lanka, which are in the same 16SrXI group, appear in different groups based on secA analysis.

Areca catechu L. is one of the most important plantation crop cultivated in Kerala. Recent reports indicate that phytophagous mites could infest the foliage and nuts of areca palm and induce substantial damage, leading to various levels of economic loss. Among the mites, Raoiella indica Hirst, popularly called Red Palm Mite (RPM) has been recognized as a serious pest of areca palm in various localities of India. Various life stages of this mite were found colonizing and feeding on the lower surface of palm leaves, by de-sapping and which in turn would lead to the formation of yellowish speckles and bronzing in later stages and the ultimate drying up of the leaves. Photosynthesis, being a vital process determining the plant vigour and productivity should be addressed with great concern. In the present study, attention has been focused to analyse the feeding impact of the red palm mite, on the photosynthetic machinery of areca palms through the quantitative estimation of chlorophyll ‘a', ‘b', ‘total chlorophyll' pigments and also ‘photosynthetic efficiency' of mite infested and uninfested leaves. Results of the study revealed that the feeding activity of the mite on the leaves of A.catechu induced drastic reduction in the levels of chlorophyll ‘a', ‘b', ‘total chlorophyll' and ‘photosynthetic efficiency'. The percentage loss in chl ‘a', chl ‘b' and ‘total chlorophyll' were 62.21±0.63, 57.67±0.73 and 59.884±0.375 respectively in RPM infested Areca leaves. RPM infestation varied significantly in photosynthetic parameters such as minimum fluorescence (F0), maximum fluorescence ( Fm), variable fluorescence (Fv), quantum yield of photosynthesis (Fv/Fm), performance index (PI) and the Area which has a negatively impact on photosynthetic efficiency of areca palms. These data obtained from chlorophyll analysis and photosynthetic efficiency were found significant at 0.05level, up on statistical analysis using t-test, thereby establishing the pest status of RPM on A. catcheu.

The areca palm (Areca catechu L.), belonging to the Palmaceae family, is an important economic crop in Hainan. In June 2018, symptoms of leaf spot were observed on nearly 20% of A. catechu in Qionghai, Hainan (19°40′N; 110°33′E). At first, leaves exhibited small yellow spots; as symptoms progressed, the middle of the lesions appeared black with distinct yellow halos. Lesions were long oval, sometimes irregular with black to brown, small black spots and distinct yellow halos. As the lesions continued to expand, necrotic spots enlarged, gradually gray, and then combined to form larger necrotic areas. Ten leaves with typical symptoms were randomly collected. Small tissue sections (5 × 5 mm) were excised from the margins of lesions, disinfected with 75% ethanol for 10 s and 1% sodium hypochlorite for 2 min, followed by a triple wash with sterile water, plated on PDA, and incubated at 28°C. Three days after incubation, fast-growing fungal colonies with white mycelia appeared. Incubation continued for 3 weeks and few pycnidia developed. Alpha conidia were 5.9 to 8.5 × 2.3 to 3.0 µm (avg. 7.3 × 2.7 µm, n = 100), aseptate, hyaline, fusiform, and acute at both ends. Beta conidia were 14.8 to 29.6 × 1.3 to 2.1 µm (avg. 22.5 × 1.7 µm, n = 100), hyaline, filiform, curved, and tapering toward both ends. These morphological characteristics were similar to Diaporthe spp. (Guarnaccia and Crous 2017). To further confirm the identity of the isolate, single-spore isolates were cultured on PDA and selected for DNA extraction. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene was amplified using primers ITS1 and ITS4 (White et al. 1990), a partial sequence of β-tubulin (TUB) gene by T1 (O’Donnell and Cigelnik 1997) and Bt2b (Glass and Donaldson 1995), translation elongation factor 1-α (TEF1) gene by EF1-728F/EF1-986R, and calmodulin (CAL) by CAL-228F/CAL-737R (Carbone and Kohn 1999); sequence data were deposited in GenBank (MN424525, MN424539, MN424567, MN424581). BLAST analysis demonstrated that these sequences were 99% similar to the ITS (MF418423), TUB (MF418583), TEF1 (MF418502), and CAL (MF418257) of D. limonicola. Moreover, a phylogenetic tree was constructed using the method of maximum likelihood (MEGA7.0 (Kumar et al. 2016)) with a combined dataset of ITS, TUB, TEF1, and CAL sequences, which clustered the isolate with D. limonicola (CPC 31137) with high bootstrap support (100%). Based on the morphology, sequence data, and phylogenetic analysis, these isolates were determined as D. limonicola. To validate the results, a pathogenicity test was performed. Ten healthy leaves were washed with sterile water, and each leaf was slightly punctured eight times by a sterile pin and divided into two groups. The first group was placed on a mycelial disk taken from the edges of 4-day-old PDA cultures on each wounded leaf, whereas the other group was placed on PDA agar as a control. All plants were incubated at 28 ± 2°C and 100% relative humidity. Seven days after inoculation, leaves placed on the mycelial disk exhibited the typical symptoms (i.e., small black spots and gray to brown lesions surrounded by yellow halos), whereas controls showed no symptoms. Further, D. limonicola was reisolated from the leaf spot. Pathogenicity tests were repeated thrice with the same results. Koch’s postulate was achieved by the reisolation of D. limonicola from the inoculated leaves. D. limonicola has previously been reported to cause trunk canker of Citrus limon and C. sinensis in Italy (Guarnaccia and Crous 2017). To our knowledge, this is the first report of D. limonicola causing leaf spot on A. catechu in China.

Bhat S, Bhandary MJ, Rajanna L. 2014. Plant diversity in the homegardens of Karwar, Karnataka, India. Biodiversitas 15: 229-235. A study was conducted in 50 selected home gardens of Karwar, Karnataka, India to document their floristic diversity and composition withregard to life forms and uses. As many as 210 species of flowering plants belonging to 69 families were recorded. Euphorbiaceae(13species), Apocynaceae (11spp.), Cucurbitaceae (10 spp.) and Fabaceae (10 spp.) are the predominant families. Shrubs are thedominant life forms (73 spp.) followed by trees (61 spp.), herbs (42 spp.) and climbers (24 spp.). Areca palm (Areca catechu), coconutpalm (Cocos nucifera), mango tree (Mangifera indica), banana (Musa paradisiaca), shoe flower (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) and holy basil(Ocimum tenuiflorum) are the most common plants occurring in all of the 50 studied gardens. 38% of the plant species are grown mainlyfor ornamental and aesthetic purposes while 33% of the species are used for obtaining food products like fruits and vegetables and 22%of the plants are mainly used for medicinal purposes. The predominance of ornamental species makes the home gardens of Karwardifferent from those occurring in other regions in which mostly food plants form the major component.

The areca palm (Areca catechu L.) is among the most important crops grown in Southeast Asia, with a planting area of over 100,000 ha in Hainan, China. In July 2017, we observed black-brown leaf spots on areca leaves in Wanning, Hainan Province, China. Although only small-scale occurrence of this disease has been observed to date, it causes serious symptoms in the areca palm. Initial symptoms appeared as 2- to 4-mm oblong, dark red lesions on lower leaves. Lesions reached 6.0 mm and gradually developed into spindly, dark brown spots. The internal area of these lesions was shallow, medium-dark brown, and had a dark brown edge and yellow halo. Over time, the necrotic spots enlarged, gradually turned black, and then coalesced to form larger necrotic areas. To isolate the pathogen, leaf surfaces were sterilized by wiping with 75% (v/v) ethanol. Leaf samples (3.0 × 5.0 mm) were cut from borders between symptomatic and healthy tissues. Diseased tissues were transferred onto potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium supplemented with 0.01% streptomycin sulfate and incubated at 28°C for 4 days. Colonies grown from these tissues were dark with even, villous edges. Conidia were brown, smooth, fusiform or hook-shaped, and measured 18 to 25 μm long × 8.0 to 12.0 μm wide. The conidia had three to four transversal septa, with the middle one to two cells larger and darker than the others, which were borne from the apex of geniculate conidiophores singly or in groups, showing very similar characteristics to Curvularia pseudobrachyspora (Manamgoda et al. 2012; Marin-Felix et al. 2017). Pathogenicity tests were performed on new leaves of healthy areca seedlings (0.6 to 0.8 m in height). Healthy leaves were rinsed with sterilized water and gently punctured with a sterile pin. Five mycelial disks taken from the edges of 4-day-old PDA cultures were placed on each wounded leaf, covered with wet sterile blotting paper, and wrapped in a plastic bag. As a control, PDA agar was placed on leaves of the same seedlings. Three areca seedlings were inoculated, and the symptoms were observed after 15 days. Although no symptoms appeared on the control leaves, typical symptoms (i.e., circular brown lesions surrounded by yellow halos) were observed on leaves inoculated with the isolate. The pathogen was reisolated from symptomatic leaves. The ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and translation elongation factor 1-alpha (EF1a) were amplified using the primers ITS5p and ITS4 (White et al. 1990), gpd1 and gpd2 (Berbee et al. 1999), and 983F and 2218R (Schoch et al. 2009), respectively. The combined ITS (MH516132), GAPDH (MH516133), and EF1a (MH516134) sequences were compared with published sequences of 49 Curvularia isolates and six Bipolaris isolates by phylogenetic analysis. The HNWN001 isolate from Areca in Hainan showed 100% similarity with an isolate (CPC 28808) of C. pseudobrachyspora from Eleusine indica but slight difference from other Curvularia isolates (Manamgoda et al. 2012). Surprisingly, HNWN001 showed distinct difference from a C. oryzae strain isolated from oil palm (CBS169.53). Based on morphology, pathogenesis, and multigene sequence analysis, the causal agent of leaf spots on A. catechu was identified as C. pseudobrachyspora. This is the first report of C. pseudobrachyspora causing leaf spots on areca in China and worldwide.

This study investigates the effect of boric acid and sucrose on the germination and growth of Areca catechu L (areca palm). Using areca pollen from Hainan, China, this study determines the influence of culture media with different concentrations of boric acid and sucrose on the germination and growth of areca pollen. Results show that the germination and growth of the pollen tube growth are highest under a boric acid concentration of 0.4 g/L to 0.6 g/L. The germination rate of areca pollen is highest in solid medium with a sucrose concentration of 40 g/L. The optimum culture medium for developing areca pollen comprises 5 g/L agar, 0.4 g/L to 0.6 g/L boric acid, 40 g/L sucrose, and water. Furthermore, areca pollen grows most rapidly approximately 1.5 h after in vitro cultivation at normal temperature, and growth stabilizes at approximately 3 h. The principle that governs the development of areca pollen is also discussed.

This 1-year study, extending from January to December 2011, was conducted to investigate the role of the Indian flying fox (Pteropus giganteus) as a seed disperser in Lahore, Pakistan. Ejecta of the species from two roosting sites, i.e. Jinnah garden and Lalazar garden, was collected and the plant seeds were extracted from bat boluses and guano. Various seeds of edible trees and forest plantation species extracted from ejecta of P. Giganteus included areca palm (Areca catechu), coromandel ebony (Diospyros melanoxylon), Indian gaabh (D. Peregrina), lemon-scented gum (Eucalyptus citriodora), Chinese fan palm (Livistona chinensis), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), mahwa (Madhuca longifolia), Indian lilac (Melia azedarach), cajeput tree (Melaleuca leucadendra), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), guava (Psidium guajava), and janbolanum plum (Syzygium jambolanum). Measurements of the extracted seeds' length (mm), diameter (mm), and weight (g) were taken and the seeds of jack fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) were found the longest (40 mm) with the maximum average diameter (50 mm) while the rambutan (N. Lappaceum) seeds were the heaviest (3.4 g). It can be concluded from the present study that P. Giganteus is a seed disperser and transporter of heavier seeds as heavier seeds are mammal-dependent for their dispersal.

The antifungal activities of cinnamon oil, clove oil, anise oil, and peppermint oil, and their main components (cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, trans -anethole, and menthol, respectively) against molds identified from areca palm leaf sheath ( Mucor dimorphosporus , Penicillium sp., Aspergillus niger , and Rhizopus sp.) were investigated. An agar dilution method was employed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of essential oils and their main components. Zone inhibition tests and the inhibitory effect of the leaf sheath dip-treated with essential oils against those molds were examined. Major components of essential oils on the leaf sheath during storage were quantified by gas chromatography analysis. The MIC values of essential oils on agar and on the leaf sheath were identical. With an MIC of 50 μg ml −1 , cinnamon oil had the strongest inhibitory effect. At their MICs the oils were capable of providing protection against mold growth on the leaf sheath for at least 12 weeks during storage at 25 °C and 100% RH. Scanning electron microscope examination showed that essential oils prevented spore germination. Except for menthol in peppermint oil, the main components of the essential oils, which were fairly stable over the storage period, largely contributed to the antifungal activity.

A novel virus, tentatively named "areca palm necrotic spindle-spot virus" (ANSSV), was identified in Areca catechu L. in Hainan, China, and its complete genomic sequence was determined. Its positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome is comprised of 9,437 nucleotides (nt), excluding the poly (A) tail, and contains one large open reading frame encoding a polyprotein of 3,019 amino acids (aa). A Blastp search showed that the polyprotein of ANSSV shared a maximum of 31%-32% aa sequence identity (with 86%-95% coverage) with all seven known macluraviruses. Nucleotide sequence comparison of the ORF of ANSSV to those of macluraviruses revealed identities ranging from 41.0% to 44.6%, which is less than the inter-genus identity values for the family Potyviridae. Phylogenetic analysis based on either the aa or nt sequence of the polyprotein did not cluster ANSSV into any established or unassigned genus of the family Potyviridae. Therefore, we suggest that ANSSV is the first member of a previously unrecognized genus of the family Potyviridae.