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The elderly have been neglected within bioarchaeological discourse, partly due to limitations in current osteological techniques for identifying older adults. Historical evidence suggests that older women in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were often denigrated and neglected, but this has yet to be fully explored within bioarchaeological research. This study aims to investigate elderly underrepresentation in bioarchaeological discourse, and the biological and social impact of aging on women in eighteenthandnineteenth century England. Archival sources were integrated with skeletal evidence from two eighteenth–nineteenth-century cemeterysites and a contemporaneous dataset of individuals of known age-at-death. This formed the interpretative basis for osteological case studies of two women aged 88 and 64 years at death (based on coffin plates). Older adult females from the known age-at-death sample were more frequently placed in the “18+ years” age-at-death category than males. This is partly due to preservation bias driven by factors such as osteoporosis and smaller bone size. Paleopathological analysis revealed the impact of conditions associated with bodily degeneration in older adults, and the osteobiographies identified risks associated with reduced bone density and susceptibility to fragility fractures for aging women. Archival cause-of-death data indicated that older women were more likely than older men to be recorded as dying of “old age,” revealing gendered social perceptions aligned to aging. Studies encompassing both historical and osteoarchaeological sources can further our knowledge regarding the elderly in the past, particularly those underrepresented within bioarchaeological assemblages, and reflect on persistent gendered social perceptions of these groups in the present. Los ancianos son frecuentemente ignorados en el discurso bioarqueológico, en parte debido a las limitaciones de las técnicas osteológicas actuales para identificar adultos de edad avanzada. Las evidencias históricas sugieren que las mujeres mayores de los siglos XVIII y XIX eran a menudo denigradas y desatendidas, aunque esto aún no se ha explorado todavía a fondo dentro de la investigación bioarqueológica. Este estudio pretende investigar la infrarrepresentación de las personas mayores en el discurso bioarqueológico y el impacto biológico y social del envejecimiento para las mujeres de la Inglaterra del siglo XVIII-XIX. Las fuentes archivísticas han sido consideradas junto a las evidencias esqueléticas procedentes de dos cementerios de los siglos XVIII y XIX, además de los datos de individuos contemporáneos de edad de muerte conocida. Esto sirvió de base interpretativa para el estudio osteológico de los casos de dos mujeres de 88 y 64 años (según las placas de los ataúdes). Las mujeres adultas mayores de la muestra de edad de fallecimiento conocida se clasificaron con más frecuencia que los hombres en la categoría de edad de “+18 años.” Esto se debe en parte a un sesgo de conservación debido a factores como la osteoporosis y el menor tamaño de los huesos. El análisis paleopatológico reveló el impacto de las afecciones osteológicas degenerativas en los ancianos, y las osteobiografías identificaron los riesgos asociados a la reducción de la densidad ósea y la mayor susceptibilidad a las fracturas por fragilidad en las mujeres con el avance de la edad. Los datos de archivo sobre las causas de la muerte indicaban que las mujeres de edad más avanzada tenían más probabilidades que los hombres de morir de “vejez,” lo que revela percepciones sociales de género relacionadas con el envejecimiento. Los estudios que abarcan tanto fuentes históricas como osteoarqueológicas pueden ampliar nuestro conocimiento sobre los ancianos en el pasado, especialmente aquellos individuos infrarrepresentados en los conjuntos bioarqueológicos, y hacernos reflexionar sobre las percepciones sociales de género persistentes sobre estos grupos en el presente.

Members of religious orders during the later medieval period in Britain were expected to adhere to strict rules governing their daily lives which restricted their consumption of meat. This study aims to investigate whether this switch to a ‘religious diet’ can be isotopically detected in presumed religious individuals upon their entry into a religious order during adolescence. Secondary aims of this study include: 1) a comparison of the carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotope values between individuals with and without diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH); and 2) to compare the mean values of the sites analyzed with geographically and temporally related sites from previously published studies. To achieve these aims, δ13C and δ15N analysis of third molar incremental dentine collagen and bulk rib bone collagen was undertaken on ten presumed religious individuals: five from the Carmelite friary at Priory Close, Northallerton, founded in 1356 CE, and five from the Friars of the Sack-turned-Carmelite friary at Clavering Place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, founded in 1266 CE. Twelve contemporaneous faunal samples were also analyzed to provide an isotopic baseline. The δ13C and δ15N profiles of all individuals from both sites in this study increased from the beginning of the formation of the third molar at c. 8.5 years to its completion at c. 23.5 years indicating a shift during adolescence from a largely terrestrial mixed diet to one that contained a significant amount of animal and marine protein. Individuals exhibiting skeletal pathology indicative of DISH were found to have individual δ13C and δ15N values that were elevated above the means for each site, and the mean rib collagen δ13C and δ15N values at Priory Close and Clavering Place were in line with published data from other later medieval religious sites in northeastern England. This study provides evidence for a shift in diet experienced by members of religious orders during adolescence and lays the foundation for future studies of dietary changes at different religious institutions.

After the Battle Dunbar between English and Scottish forces in 1650, captured Scottish soldiers were imprisoned in Durham and many hundreds died there within a few weeks. The partial skeletal remains of 28 of these men were discovered in 2013. Building on previous osteological work, here we report wide-ranging scientific studies of the remains to address the following questions: Did they have comparable diet, health and disease throughout their lives? Did they have common histories of movement (or lack of movement) during their childhoods? Can we create a collective biography of these men? Strontium and oxygen isotope analysis of tooth enamel investigated childhood movement. Carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of incrementally sampled dentine addressed childhood diet and nutrition. Metaproteomic analysis of dental calculus investigated oral microbiomes and food residues; this was complemented by microscopic analysis of debris in calculus from ingested materials. Selected individuals were examined for dental microwear. The extent of hydroxylation of proline in collagen was examined as a potential biomarker for scurvy. An osteobiography for each man was created using the full range of data generated about him, and these were synthesised using an approach based on the historical method for a collective biography or prosopography. The childhood residences of the men were primarily within the Midland Valley of Scotland, though some spent parts of their childhood outside the British Isles. This is concordant with the known recruitment areas of the Scottish army in 1650. Their diets included oats, brassicas and milk but little seafood, as expected for lowland rather than highland diets of the period. Childhood periods of starvation or illness were almost ubiquitous, but not simultaneous, suggesting regionally variable food shortages in the 1620s and 1630s. It is likely there was widespread low-level scurvy, ameliorating in later years of life, which suggests historically unrecorded shortages of fruit and vegetables in the early 1640s. Almost all men were exposed to burnt plant matter, probably as inhaled soot, and this may relate to the high proportion of them with of sinusitis. Interpersonal violence causing skeletal trauma was rare. Based on commonalities in their osteobiographies, we argue that these men were drawn from the same stratum of society. This study is perhaps the most extensive to date of individuals from 17thcentury Scotland. Combined with a precise historical context it allows the lives of these men to be investigated and compared to the historical record with unprecedented precision. It illustrates the power of archaeological science methods to confirm, challenge and complement historical evidence.

The analysis of tool marks in bone is important in both archaeological and forensic examination to enhance our knowledge of the funerary context. Some tool mark characteristics are difficult to identify macroscopically and often additional imaging equipment is needed. Microscopic analysis of trauma has proven to be beneficial in determining individual characteristics of tool marks. However, due to the sample size restrictions or pre-analysis treatment of the sample, microscopy is not commonly used to analyse trauma on archaeological skeletal remains. The creation of casts of the tool marks is an obvious solution, but often the perceived risk of damaging the skeletal remains deters its use. Casting materials are used by many forensic scientists but there is little mention within the literature on the effectiveness of using these products to record tool marks on archaeological skeletal remains. This research used three commonly used silicone-based casting products, Xantopren L blue, Mikrosil, and Alec Tiranti RTV putty silicone, to record tool marks in modern and archaeological bones. Forty-five casts were analysed to identify which product is the least destructive and most effective in recovering tool characteristics from the skeletal remains. The results show that all of the products tested were able to replicate blade trauma and allowed the affected area to be analysed in greater detail. A comparison of the application and the effect of the products on bone revealed that Alec Tiranti putty was the best product to use on well preserved archaeological remains. Although the creation of casts using Alec Tiranti putty took longer in comparison to the other products, it did not damage the cortex of archaeological bone whereas this was not the case with Xantopren and Mikrosil. To demonstrate these results on human skeletal remains, Alec Tiranti putty was used to cast peri-mortem modification on an Iron Age cranium from Peterborough, Cambridgeshire. These casts were non-destructive and allowed for previously unidentified tool marks to be discovered.

Objective Stark health inequalities exist in the present day between the North and South of England, with people in the South, overall, experiencing better health across a range of parameters (e.g., life expectancy and number of years spent in good health). Bioarchaeological studies of skeletal remains from cemeteries across this geographical divide have the ability to provide a temporal perspective on the etiology, longevity, and nature of this disparity. Methods In total 574 non‐adults (0–17 years) from six urban sites (c. AD 1711–1856) were analyzed from the North and South of England. Measurements of long bone length, cortical thickness, and vertebral dimensions were analyzed alongside both skeletal and dental palaeopathological data to assess patterns of disease and growth disruption between skeletal samples. Results There were few significant differences in growth parameters between the six sites in relation to geographical location. However, the northern‐based sample Coach Lane (North Shields) demonstrated some of the highest rates of pathology, with metabolic disease being particularly prevalent. Discussion Northern and southern populations suffered alike from the detrimental environmental conditions associated with urban centers of the 18th–19th centuries. However, the elevated prevalence of vitamin D deficiency seen within the Coach Lane sample is indicative of a regionally specific risk that may be related to latitude, and/or the influence of particular industries operating in the North‐East.

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, England underwent a period of rapid urbanization and industrialization. The detrimental effects of urban living conditions and child factory labor on the health of children during this time has been the subject of considerable debate and investigation by historians. It is generally understood that growing up in a rural environment was more conducive to healthy growth and development than within an industrial town. This study presents the first direct comparison of the bioarchaeological evidence for non-adult health from contemporaneous urban and rural sites from the north of England. Rural skeletal assemblages from this period are rare, and most published studies are biased toward urban sites in the south of the country. Contrary to expectations, results revealed equal prevalence rates of metabolic and dental disease at both sites, but skeletons from the rural site had greater evidence of growth disruption and respiratory disease. Evidence for specific infectious disease and medical care in response to trauma were also identified. Our interpretations of rural/urban health during this period must take into account the dire consequences of social inequalities and economic migration. There is a tendency for the latter to be characterized as unidirectional—from country to town—without due consideration of rural industry and child migrant workers. Durante los siglos XVIII y XIX Inglaterra experimento un periodo acelerado de urbanizacion e industrializacion. Los efectos perjudiciales de las condiciones de vida urbana y del trabajo infantil obrero en la salud de los ninos durante este periodo han sido objeto de considerables debates e investigacion por parte de los historiadores. En general, se entiende que el crecer en un ambiente rural era mas propicio para un crecimiento y desarrollo saludables, en comparacion con el ambiente al interior de las ciudades industrializadas. Este estudio presenta la primera comparacion directa de la evidencia bioarqueologica respecto a la salud de individuos no-adultos provenientes de sitios urbanos y rurales contemporaneos del norte de Inglaterra. Las colecciones de restos oseos rurales de este periodo son escasas, y la mayoria de los estudios publicados estan sesgados hacia los sitios urbanos del sur del pais. Contrario a las expectativas, los resultados revelaron tasas de prevalencia similares en ambos sitios en cuanto a desordenes metabolicos y enfermedades dentales, pero los esqueletos del sitio rural presentaron mayor evidencia de alteraciones del crecimiento, y enfermedades respiratorias. Tambien se encontro evidencia de enfermedades infecciosas especificas y tratamiento medico como respuesta a traumas. Nuestras interpretaciones de la salud rural/urbana durante este periodo deben tener en cuenta las nefastas consecuencias de las desigualdades sociales y la migracion economica. Existe una tendencia a caracterizar esta ultima de manera unidireccional—del campo a la ciudad—sin la debida consideracion de la industria rural y de los ninos trabajadores migrantes.

Adipocere has, infrequently, been reported from archaeological contexts normally on the external surface of bodies. In contrast to those cases, this study focuses on a white, powdery and greasy substance found inside two right human femora during sampling. These samples were obtained from two identified individuals buried in the late 19th century, who were exhumed from a rock-cut and a brick-lined grave in a steeply sloping graveyard with wet soil conditions. Both individuals were buried in coffins. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to test the composition of the substances, and both were found to conform to the spectrum of adipocere. This is likely to be a breakdown product of the fats in bone marrow in an anaerobic, moist environment mediated by bacteria. None of the other individuals (n = 6) buried in similar graves displayed evidence of adipocere; this includes those whose femora were in a similar state of preservation (n = 4). Contemporaneous data on precipitation for the month of burials do not highlight any obvious trends, but one of the individuals was found in a water-logged grave. The similar preservation of other femora buried in brick-lined graves highlights the interplay of multiple factors in the formation and degradation of adipocere. More importantly, it demonstrates differential preservation, which may impact on DNA and other biomolecular research. Furthermore, this adds to the limited data currently available on adipocere found in archaeological contexts. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper describes the pathological changes observed on the skeleton of a c.12-14 year old person buried in a north-east England Quaker cemetery dated to AD 1711-1857. Bone formation (woven and lamellar) and destruction are present mainly on the mandible, clavicles, sternum and scapulae, long bones of the right arm, left ribs, spine, ilia, and the femora and tibiae. Differential diagnoses of tuberculosis and other pulmonary diseases, smallpox, actinomycosis, neoplastic disease, and "phossy jaw" are considered. While the pathological changes could represent all previously described diseases and thus be associated with the insalubrious conditions in which this person lived, it is also possible that this person worked in the matchmaking industry known to be present in the region at the time. Attention is drawn to the previously overlooked condition "phossy jaw" caused by phosphorus poisoning, which was strongly associated with this industry. While matchstick making was an industry often associated with women and girls, DNA analysis of a bone sample from the skeleton did not successfully identify biological sex. Two dental calculus samples from this person were analysed for phosphorus, and comparisons were made with samples from the same and a different site; the levels did not indicate the person was more exposed to phosphorus than any of the other people at Coach Lane. However, the pathological lesions described also have relevance in a clinical context, because "phossy jaw" has been observed in living populations, arising as a consequence of ingesting phosphorous contained within some pharmaceuticals used for treating neoplastic disease and osteoporosis.

The purported migrations that have formed the peoples of Britain have been the focus of generations of scholarly controversy. However, this has not benefited from direct analyses of ancient genomes. Here we report nine ancient genomes (∼1 ×) of individuals from northern Britain: seven from a Roman era York cemetery, bookended by earlier Iron-Age and later Anglo-Saxon burials. Six of the Roman genomes show affinity with modern British Celtic populations, particularly Welsh, but significantly diverge from populations from Yorkshire and other eastern English samples. They also show similarity with the earlier Iron-Age genome, suggesting population continuity, but differ from the later Anglo-Saxon genome. This pattern concords with profound impact of migrations in the Anglo-Saxon period. Strikingly, one Roman skeleton shows a clear signal of exogenous origin, with affinities pointing towards the Middle East, confirming the cosmopolitan character of the Empire, even at its northernmost fringes., Here, Martiniano et al. examine the genetic structure of northern Britain in the late BC/early AD using ancient genome sequencing of 9 individuals. They uncover evidence of far-reaching Roman and later Anglo-Saxon migrations within a background of Britons similar to the earlier Iron Age.

Identified skeletal collections have been widely used to test methods for recording entheseal changes (EC). These studies have all used the occupation provided with the death certificate or equivalent as the occupation during life. However, the variety of tasks undertaken within occupations, the range of occupational tasks and how these changed over the life course is rarely discussed. The aim of this paper is to highlight the value of using historical data to improve the interpretation of skeletal data. Materials and methods: Identified adult skeletons (n = 18) from the churchyard of St. Michael and St. Lawrence, Fewston, North Yorkshire, England, were recorded for EC and degenerative joint changes (DJC). The individuals were born and died between 1791 and 1921 (only one individual was buried after the churchyard's closure in 1896). All individuals have at least one census record that includes their occupation. Published sections of a diary coinciding with the cemetery's use and written by the son of two of the identified individuals were used to record the frequency and range of activities. Results: Men (54.5% of them) and women (29% of them) changed their occupations, and those who changed occupation were found to be older than those who did not. The latter were found to have a lower frequency of DJC and EC, but this is likely due to the difference in age profile between the two groups. However, the detailed pattern of EC did not match that of DJC for the three occupation categories used. The diary demonstrated that a stonemason undertook a wide variety of occupational tasks as well as enjoying hobbies. Discussion: The results demonstrate that occupations in 19th century rural England were not stable and demonstrated a wide variety of everyday and infrequent activities. This demonstrates that using occupation listed at death does not provide sufficiently detailed information for testing methods of recording EC or for interpreting the relationship between occupation and health. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The use of ancient DNA in paleopathological studies of tuberculosis has largely been restricted to confirmation of disease identifications made by skeletal analysis; few attempts at obtaining genotype data from archaeological samples have been made because of the need to perform different PCRs for each genetic locus being studied in an ancient DNA extract. We used a next generation sequencing approach involving hybridization capture directed at specific polymorphic regions of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis genome to identify a detailed genotype for a historic strain of M. tuberculosis from an individual buried in the 19th century St. George’s Crypt, Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. We obtained 664,500 sequencing by oligonucleotide ligation and detection (SOLiD) reads that mapped to the targeted regions of the M. tuberculosis genome; the coverage included 218 of 247 SNPs, 10 of 11 insertion/deletion regions, and the repeat elements IS1081 and IS6110. The accuracy of the SOLiD data was checked by conventional PCRs directed at 11 SNPs and two insertion/deletions. The data placed the historic strain of M. tuberculosis in a group that is uncommon today, but it is known to have been present in North America in the early 20th century. Our results show the use of hybridization capture followed by next generation sequencing as a means of obtaining detailed genotypes of ancient varieties of M. tuberculosis , potentially enabling meaningful comparisons between strains from different geographic locations and different periods in the past.