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Thesis (M. Environmental Management)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007 Decision making regarding the release of biological control agents for invasive species such as lantana, Lantana camara, requires the consideration and evaluation of environmental impact assessment (EIA) reports by a competent authority. Although various biological control agents have been authorised for release into the environment for the control of lantana, the quality of the EIA reports that form the basis for decision making has never been evaluated. The evaluation of the quality of EIA reports on the release of biological control agents by means of an adapted Lee-Colley review package was the focus of this research. The main conclusion was that the quality of the EIA reports on the release of biological control agents for the control of Lantana camara (lantana) was poor by the standards of the review package, the literature reviewed, and the legal requirements. The main deficiencies in the EIA reports related to impact identification, impact evaluation, scoping, mitigation measures and monitoring programmes, while the project descriptions, non-technical summaries and layout and presentation of information in the reports were of good quality. These results correspond to reports in literature that affirms that essential information about impact identification and evaluation and subsequent mitigation and monitoring, the crux of the EIA, is mostly insufficient in EIA reports. Masters

MSc (Environmental Management with Ecological Water Requirements), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus This research was aimed at providing a critical perspective of ecological water requirements (EWRs) governance with a specific focus on the Mooi River sub-catchment, South Africa. The specific sub-catchment was chosen due to its complex governance context and the presence of mixed economic activities such as mining, industrialisation, agriculture and urbanisation. Although monitoring is in progress through River Ecosystem Monitoring Program (REMP) across the country and even though policies, strategies and guidelines are available on water resources monitoring, there seems to be various EWRs governance challenges. For the purpose of the research, peer reviewed literature as well as related policy and legislation were critically analysed and a theoretical framework relating to EWR governance was established. A qualitative research approach was followed in data collection and analysis through semi-structured interviews with key role players. Data analysis was done using thematic analysis. The results from the study show that there is poor implementation of EWR policies and guidelines with no transparency and lack of stakeholder engagement. The establishment of guidelines such as for Resource Quality Objectives (RQOs) was not done in consultation with the stakeholders; therefore, some important factors such as catchments interconnectedness were not taken into consideration. The government departments and DWS mandates are not fulfilled due to fragmented approach and working in silos; therefore, there is shifting of responsibilities. For this reason, it is important to develop a systematic approach that involves stakeholders and transparency in the EWR governance implementation across all catchments. Masters

Freshwater recreational angling is growing in popularity internationally. Due to the potential negative environmental impacts, various regulatory systems exist. In South Africa, freshwater recreational angling is regulated through a complex legal framework, consisting of national and provincial legislation dating back to the 1960s. The legislation also relates to historical and current provincial boundaries, adding to the regulatory complexity. Due to this complexity, the question arises whether freshwater recreational bank anglers in South Africa are aware of the regulatory requirements applicable to them. Low levels of awareness could lead to non-compliance, which would suggest an ineffective regulatory system. The aim of this research was thus to determine the environmental regulatory awareness of freshwater recreational bank anglers in South Africa. This was achieved through a literature review of national and provincial legislation, as well as the rules applicable to organised freshwater recreational bank angling. An online survey was completed by 100 members of the South African Freshwater Bank Angling Federation (SAFBAF). The results of the survey indicate that the regulatory awareness of the sample of SAFBAF freshwater recreational anglers is low in certain key areas, such as bag and size limits for specific fish species, catch and release requirements, as well as legal definitions for alien and invasive and TOPS species listings. However, the low level of awareness can be ascribed to the complex regulatory system and not unwillingness of anglers to comply per se. It is recommended that (i) a single consolidated and simplified regulatory system for freshwater recreational bank angling be developed, and (ii) that angling organisational and competition rules be aligned with relevant regulatory requirements, to improve overall awareness and promote higher levels of regulatory compliance.

MSc (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Assessing and managing the environmental impacts of housing development is an international challenge. In South Africa, depending on the size and nature of mixed-use residential developments, such developments may be subject to an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process. The number of large mixed use residential developments on the peripheries of cities are on the increase. However, limited research exists on the quality of the EIA reports for these developments submitted to the competent authority for decision-making. This research made use of an adapted version of the Lee and Colley review package to assess the quality of the EIA reports of eight mixed-use residential developments that were subject to a full scoping and EIA process. These developments were identified across South Africa. The main conclusions are that while most reports perform satisfactorily, none of the reviewed reports were complete in terms of best practice. Best practice was predominantly applied only when it formed part of the legal requirements. The main strengths of the reports are the use of visual aids like maps, descriptions of the baseline environments, and the execution and recording of the public participation process. The main weaknesses of the reports relate to descriptions of the various methodologies used at various stages, the provision of references and data sources, and the investigation of cumulative impacts. The results mostly correspond to results of EIA report quality research in other sectors in South Africa. Masters

MSc (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Extreme climate events are frequent in many parts of the world. Considering these climate events are accompanied by a growing population, resulting in an increased water demand from local municipalities, alternative water-related development strategies should be considered. Incorporating Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) within municipal Spatial Development Frameworks (SDFs) can enhance the sustainability of urban areas. Water resource management is one of the most significant challenges experienced in the 21st century. South Africa is a semi-arid country with variations in rainfall, temporal and spatial precipitation, resulting in a more complex situation. It is expected that by 2030, there will be a water demand and supply gap of up to 17% due to increased urbanisation, population and economic growth, climate change and unrealistic living standards. The relationship between water and land use is not understood, and spatial planning and land-use documents barely address water-related land-use implications. This study aimed to understand the level of incorporation of WSUD within Municipal SDFs. The study reflects on the urban water challenges experienced on local and international levels. Opportunities are identified as to how municipalities can, and should, give effect to WSUD. This was achieved by evaluating four municipal SDFs using the WSUD principles. To prove that municipal SDFs do not incorporate WSUD to secure water sustainability, Witzenberg Local Municipality, Dawid Kruiper Local Municipality, Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality and Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality were selected as case studies. A review of each case study’s SDF revealed that the concept of WSUD is not incorporated fully. An extensive evaluation revealed that sustainable water management and planning can be achieved by incorporating WSUD. The study provides a framework for WSUD with guidelines on water sensitivity and conservation for local authorities. This will ensure that municipalities can secure adequate water resources in the future. Masters

This article reflects on the potential for impact assessment (IA) to be a major vehicle for implementing the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). While it is acknowledged that the SDGs are intended to deliver broader outcomes than IA currently does, we nevertheless argue there is significant convergence between IA and the SDGs, which we explore utilising the key dimensions of sustainability assessment: comprehensiveness, strategicness and integratedness. We conclude that ‘geared up’ IA might be used as a major vehicle to facilitate achievement of the SDGs. However, IA must become more comprehensive and integrated, such that the full suite of SDGs and their relationships, including trade-offs, can be dealt with in a transparent and inclusive way

M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus The Section 24G administrative fine which provides for the ex post facto authorisation of illegal development is unique to South Africa since it is enacted into legislation. This retrospective authorisation is seldomly practised internationally except in South Africa, India, Papua New Guinea and Lesotho. In India, the instruction only comes as a directive by which is given time frames and is only applicable to certain activities. In Lesotho, it is only done for projects that have already untaken the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and such a directive will be from the government, whereas in South Africa it is applicable to all the listed or specified activities for which authorisation should have been obtained prior to the commencement of the activity. In all the countries, this has been controversial and being challenged as it is viewed that it undermines the purpose of the EIA. South Africa has a plethora of environmental management legislation, which is used to manage and conserve the environment. Over and above the legislation, environmental impact assessment (EIA) is one of the environmental assessment tools used and adopted internationally to manage the environmental impacts. It has its own challenges but still comes out to be one of the widely accepted and used tools worldwide. In South Africa things started to change when amendments for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) regulations of Environment Conservation Act, no. 73 of 1989 were effected to introduce the National Environmental Management Act, No. 107 of 1998, which requires the calculator. The administrative fine is determined by using a prescribed administrative calculator. The calculator was never published, and it was criticised as the developers alleged that the competent authorities are not consistent when determining the quantum fines. In addressing such criticism, the Minister of Environmental Affairs publicised the calculator in July 2017 to enable the stakeholders to make meaningful inputs in determining the administrative fines. Drawing from this, the study aims at critically analysing the NEMA S24G administrative fine calculator. To achieve the study’s aim, the study evaluated the use of S24G calculator, assessed challenges experienced using the fine calculator, and finally investigated ways that can be used to improve the fine calculator. The study adopted the qualitative research approach embedded within the interpretivism research tradition. Competent Authorities (CAs) and Environmental Assessment Practitioners (EAPs) formed the basis of the population of the study and its sample thereof. Data was gathered using questionnaire from both CAs and EAPs, and the gathered data was analysed using thematic data analysis. This enabled the researcher to develop codes and to classify the findings. The findings of this study revealed that the competent authorities (CA) and the EAPs have adequate knowledge of EIA regulations and the application of fine calculator in Section 24G. The results further revealed that the application of a calculator is perceived to be an appropriate instrument in environmental management tools. It was recommended that there be a room to improve the calculator and expand some of the indexes, such as the pollution index, to take into consideration the cumulative impacts. Another noble suggestion was that the fine must take into consideration the profit made with the illegal activities and that be factored into the calculator. It was also recommended that a National Environmental Trust Fund (NETF) be considered as it would help realizing ‘the polluter pays’ principles and rehabilitation of impacted areas as contemplated in section 28 on NEMA. Finally, the weighting of the calculator should be investigated further to comprehend the weighting and the description of the variables. Masters

M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Freshwater recreational angling is growing in popularity internationally. Due to the potential negative environmental impacts different regulatory systems exist. In South Africa, freshwater recreational angling is regulated through a complex legal framework, consisting of national as well as provincial legislation dating back to the 1960s. Moreover, the legislation also relates to current and historical provincial boundaries that adds to the regulatory complexity. Due to this complexity the question arises whether freshwater recreational anglers are aware of the legislation applicable to them. Low levels of awareness would suggest an ineffective regulatory system. The aim of this research is to test the regulatory awareness of freshwater recreational anglers. Firstly, a literature review was conducted of the national and provincial legislation, together with the rules applicable to organized freshwater recreational angling. Secondly, an online questionnaire testing awareness was distributed, targeting members of the South African Freshwater Bank Angling Federation (SAFBAF). The results from the survey indicate that the regulatory awareness of freshwater recreational anglers is low. However, the low level of awareness of legislation can be ascribed to the complex regulatory system and not an unwillingness of anglers to comply. This is supported by the finding that awareness and willingness to adhere to the SAFBAF rules (which is not legislation) is high. It is recommended that a single set of legislation regulating freshwater angling be drafted and implemented across South Africa, to improve awareness and thereby regulatory compliance. Masters

M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus The Kruger National Park is South Africa's largest protected area, spanning two million hectares and is home to over a thousand different bird, mammal, reptile, fish, amphibian, and tree species. National parks attract thousands of visitors each year, making them vulnerable to tourism-related developments. Since protected areas protect huge swaths of biodiversity, as well as social and cultural heritage areas, it is critical that infrastructure and facility developments in these areas extensively consider multiple alternatives. This will ensure that developments are undertaken in a sustainable manner and that they align with the mandate of protected areas. Six (6) Basic Assessment Reports undertaken between 2015 and 2018, for various developments in the Kruger National Park were selected as case studies for this research. Each Basic Assessment Report included specialist studies and all relevant public participation engagement records. The first two research questions evaluated the extent and quality of alternatives assessment in Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) undertaken for developments in the Kruger National Park, using the South African National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) EIA regulations, as a tool and to provide criteria. The third research question sought to identify the factors that influence EIA alternatives assessment. The extent of alternatives assessment in EIA in the Kruger National Park was found to be adequate and the categories of alternatives were generally well assessed in each report. Alternatives categories such as design/layout, the no-go alternative and technology alternatives were well assessed. Alternatives categories such as property/location, operational and activity alternatives were poorly assessed, and this was attributed to these alternatives being evaluated and decided upon, on a strategic level. EIA was therefore unable to inform these alternatives categories. The quality of the alternatives assessed in these EIA reports was satisfactory with predominantly A grades and B grades. From the findings of these first two research questions, it can be concluded that the quality of EIA alternatives assessment in protected areas is generally satisfactory. However, some alternatives categories, such as operational and activity alternatives, are generally excluded from EIA because these decisions are made at a strategic level prior to EIA. Due to the small sample size of the EAPs that completed the questionnaire, no conclusive conclusions could be drawn between the EAPs’ education and experience and relevant influence on EIA alternatives assessment. A substantial majority of the responses mentioned project proponents commissioning EIA studies after substantial investment had already been made into their preferred alternative, restricting detailed alternatives assessments to the proponents’ preferred alternative. Specialist assessments recommendations were found to be a factor that positively influenced alternatives assessment and ensured the adoption of layout alternatives with low ecological sensitivities. Public participation was believed to have a minimal influence on major alternatives or to contribute to the development of new ones. The lack of influence of public participation on alternatives assessment is related to the strategic level at which critical project decisions are made and alternatives are assessed, as well as the timing of EIA in the project process, which is frequently too late in the project design. Future research is needed to determine the quality of SANParks' strategic alternatives assessment when deciding on the types of developments to be undertaken in the park. The results, coupled with the findings of this research, will provide a thorough evaluation of the quality of alternatives assessment for developments in Protected Areas, on both the strategic and EIA levels. Masters

M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Sustainable development is defined as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (Brundtland, 1987). In 2015 a suite of seventeen international Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were developed and agreed upon by 193 countries to form The Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development (Pedersen, 2018) and included 169 implementation targets and 231 indicators. The SDGs were born on the back of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which spanned a period of fifteen years from 2000 until 2015 in which global leaders came together to shape a broad vision of fighting poverty in its many dimensions (United Nations, 2015). The aim of this research was based on the perceived problem facing the successful adoption of the SDGs (in particular the implementation targets) by South African companies which lay in the strategic integration, alignment and effective reporting (PwC, 2019). Private sector companies are increasingly becoming a key player in the global achievement of the SDGs (Pedersen, 2018) and whom could capitalise on an estimated $12 trillion per annum market that is linked to the SDGs (Scott & McGill, 2018). Therefore, this dissertation set out to answer the following research question: “To what degree are South African companies adopting the SDG implementation targets, and what are some of the drivers and/or barriers they face?” To answer this research question, an in-depth literature review was conducted on the SDG implementation targets, their varying degrees of adoption and the role they play in achieving the SDGs within the private sector. This was followed by identifying and outlining the research methodology which considered, by way of documents analysis, the degree to which South Africa’s Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) Top 40 listed companies are reporting their adoption of the SDG implementation targets; and to understand through a qualitative survey, the drivers and/or barriers that these organizations face with regards to adopting and reporting on the SDG implementation targets. The results revealed a similar trend of adoption outcomes to that of PwC (2019) in that an impressive 80% of the JSE Top 40 companies mentioned the SDG goals in their Annual Reports; however a dramatic decline in the degree of SDG adoption was discovered thereafter with only 10% of the companies mentioning the SDG implementation targets; and a further 2.5% mentioning the SDG indicators in their annual reporting. Furthermore, the quality of the SDG implementation target adoption was evaluated with 7.5% of the companies mentioning the implementation targets with no ambition, and the remaining 2.5% with quantitative reporting against ambitions. The top three drivers (opportunities) facing these companies with regards to SDG adoption were meeting investor and/or stakeholder expectations (50%), environmental and social risk mitigation (40%), and achieving resilience and long-term success (40%); whilst the top three barriers (challenges) were that the companies were financially focused, in other words the cost of investing in environmental and social sustainability (such as the SDGs) was a key barrier (60%), lack of leadership understanding of the SDGs (40%), and a mis-aligned of the company’s corporate strategy with regards to the SDGs (30%). In light of the above, it can be concluded that the degree (and quality) of SDG implementation target adoption, by South African companies, namely in this case the JSE Top 40, is minimal, and leaves significant room for improvement over the next ten years. From the literature review, it is evident that many SDG adoption tools, frameworks and guidelines exist with which to support private sector companies in adopting, achieving and reporting on the SDGs, therefore in order for South African companies to significantly contribute to achieving the SDGs, it is paramount that they do more than just mention the SDGs in their annual reporting, and instead integrate the SDGs into their corporate strategy, include specific SDG implementation targets and indicators into their performance scorecards, implement the required actions and report against the SDG implementation targets and indicators (GRI, UN Global Compact and the WBCSD, 2015). Further research could be done to understand why South African companies are struggling to achieve the above components of SDG adoption and thereby contributing towards achieving the SDGs. Whilst global progress in achieving the SDGs was already lagging prior to COVID-19, the global pandemic over the course of 2020 has unfortunately halted much of the progress to date, even calling for a post COVID-19 review of the SDGs in their current form (Nature, 2020), however on a positive note, there is still time to achieve the SDGs as humanity is poised on what the United Nations (2020) describes as the start of a ‘Decade of Action’, and while this research primarily focused on the degree of SDG implementation target adoption, the majority of the JSE Top 40 companies have adopted other sustainability frameworks such as the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) in which they include and report on numerous targets and indicators under the auspices of environmental and social governance. Masters

M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus The water resources of South Africa are contaminated. A major contributor to this challenge is poorly managed operational and incompetently controlled municipal waste water treatment works (WWTWs). The objective of the research was to investigate the interfaces and challenges of co-operative governance based on waste water treatment works within the Berg River Catchment Water Management Area (WMA). In this study, the Drakenstein Municipality (DM) was used as an example of a municipality, located within the Berg River WMA in the Western Cape Province. Questionnaires were distributed to participants within the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) and DM to obtain their views and opinions (data) regarding co-operative governance in the management and operation of WWTWs. Results were analysed and several challenges and factors contributing to the failure of municipalities fulfilling their constitutional obligations related to management and operation of WWTWs were indicated. These included the lack of resources (human and financial) and technical skills, high staff turnover, lack of stakeholder engagements, delay in issuing of licenses, co-operation among officials within various directorates of DWS, insufficient support from national sphere of government to local government funding for the ageing of the current infrastructure. It is suggested that the DWS develop an operational strategy aiming to strengthen the licensing and compliance and enforcement units. Furthermore, collaboration between spheres of government and the external (relevant) stakeholder is necessary as the stakeholders work closer to communities and know what is happening within the community at large. The implementation of the recommendations made, may enable all institutions responsible for the management and operation of WWTWs to work in a holistic manner and adhere to principles of co-operative governance as mandated by the Constitution (1996). Masters

MSc (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus The use of biodiversity offsets has expanded internationally over the past four decades. However, amidst the wealth of offsets practice there seems to be limited follow-up empirical research to learn from practice. Therefore, the main question for this research is, “What can we learn from biodiversity offsets implementation within eThekwini Municipality?�. In order to answer the research question three research objectives were designed namely, i) to evaluate the level of conformance to the eleven best practice offset principles that have been established in the South African context, ii) to understand the factors affecting the level of conformance, and iii) to evaluate the effect of timing on the offset outcomes. In this context outcomes means conformance to best practice principles and the quality, viability and enforceability of biodiversity offsets. The methodology relied on document review and semi-structured interviews with various stakeholders involved in five purposefully selected biodiversity offsets case studies from eThekwini Municipality (EM). The research results show that the case studies from EM conformed to only three best practice principles and partially conformed to eight principles. The three conformed principles are principle 4: No-net loss; principle 9: Additionality; and principle 11: Offset follows landscape and ecosystem approach. The eight partially conformed principles are principle 1: Conformance to the mitigation hierarchy; principle 2: Proper offset agreement is in place before activity starts; principle 3: Transparency and stakeholder participation; principle 5: Focused on long-term outcome; principle 6: Offset is enforceable; principle 7: Cumulative, direct and indirect impacts are considered; principle 8: Limits to what can be offset; and principle 10: Like for like. Furthermore, the timing of introduction of the offset influenced the overall conformance to the best practice principles. In addition, the timing when the offset was proposed negatively influenced the quality, viability and enforceability of biodiversity offsets when the offset is introduced too late in the EIA process. As a result, implementation is compromised due to the lack of long-term commitment to the offset; the ability to fully offsetting ecosystem services; and effective stakeholder consultation on offsets. It is concluded that the adoption of a national policy for biodiversity offsets is long overdue and should be implemented as a matter of urgency to guide practice. Furthermore, the research recommends capacity building for biodiversity stakeholders on the best practice principles and for eThekwini Municipality (EM) to determine biodiversity priorities and viable mitigation options. Masters

MSc (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Studies show that in developing countries the concentrations of pollutants discharged into water bodies are still very high; thus, several attempts have been made to address this phenomenon and eventually achieve compliance. South Africa made it mandatory for wastewater treatment plants to be licenced and thus achieve compliance in terms of the National Environment Management: Waste Act (Act no 59 of 2008). Compliance to regulations are spelt out under section 24(5) of the NEMA. This compliance is critical for wastewater entities to operate. Thus municipalities are mandated to comply with the waste management licence requirements. This study aimed to evaluate factors that influence compliance with waste management licenses in selected wastewater treatment plants in Chris Hani District Municipality. This was achieved through a combination of literature review, document analysis and semi-structured interviews with 19 municipal employees comprised of process controllers, environmental control officers, engineers, and managers. Data were analysed using thematic analysis, which is a qualitative data analysis procedure that identifies key themes in an attempt to answer research questions posed by the study. Results shows that factors affecting compliance with waste management licence by wastewater treatment plants are population growth, design capacity, discharge effluent flow, human resource factors (management, recruitment, and capacity building), site security, budget, infrastructure (ageing infrastructure, outsourcing of municipal service, lack of scheduled maintenance) and resources. Most respondents cited budget as one of the main factors impacting negatively on the ability to comply with waste management licences. This may impact on the effectiveness of the wastewater treatment plant operations. Masters

MSc (Geography and Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Economic growth is one of the most prominent notions in the global economy. Environmental impact fundamentally links to economic growth as all economic activities have an ultimate dependence on resources from the natural environment. The relationship between economic activities and the natural environment is intensifying with an increasing decline of environmental resources to the extent that economic crises and environmental crises can no longer be considered as non-related phenomena. Economy-environmental interactions are, however, framed and informed by different perspectives – shaped by prior knowledge, prominent worldviews, and at the function of human interpretation. These interactions offered a nuanced aspect of the broad economy-environment debate, and led to the research aim of exploring the economic growth-impact assessment nexus through subjective perspectives on the theory of economic growth held by agents of the environmental impact assessment and who actively steer the outcome of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process. The aim of this study was based on the premise that subjectivity is open to scientific understanding in similarity to how objectivity is scientifically understood. This research generated an understanding of what subjectivities are present in practice but are rarely highlighted in explicit or tangible means despite these subjectivities having demonstrated influence on EIA outcomes. The research was undertaken in a three-part methodology that consisted of a Systematic Literature Review, a Case Study Analysis, and a Q Study. The Systematic Literature Review confirmed poor and possibly absent key linkages between the theory of economic growth, the practice of EIA, and against agency and decision-making patterns. This was the foundation for undertaking the qualitative-quantitative hybrid methodology of Q, which allowed for the analysis of economic growth-economic impact subjectivity in a structural and statistically interpretable form for four identified EIA case studies. The results were guided by the quantification of the subjective perspectives which allowed for the patterning of key economic growth-impact assessment perspectives against EIA agents. The research results interpretation remained aligned to the impression that the EIA practice is not a science and that poor understanding exists about the subjective economic growth-impact assessment perspectives held within the EIA practice. This allowed for the seeking of a deeper understanding on how the theory of economic growth influences EIA outcomes, and ultimately, the manifestation of sustainable forms of development. Pluralism in subjective economic growth-impact assessment perspectives emerged from this research and demonstrated how prominent the diversity is across three dimensions: the EIA industry as a whole, the Agent Clusters constituting the EIA industry, and specific EIA cases. The economic growth-impact assessment nexus did not portray as a linear or single relationship and remains heavily influenced by subjective perspectives held by different agents of the EIA practice. The research found that although the EIA practice is rooted in the theory of economic growth, voices emerged on the need for the EIA practice to pursue alternative economic notions, and some perspectives being generally obscured by policy objectives or political agendas. As an overarching interpretation to the EIA practice, the research found the practice to be highly polarised as a result of the economic growth-impact assessment disconnect. The relevancy of decision heuristics of individuals clearly emerged alongside the pluralism in perspectives and this is in contrast to the technical-rational model from which the EIA process developed; and an interpretation to the overarching perspective of this research, namely that the EIA practice demonstrates an inability to handle the economic growth-impact assessment disconnect and polarisation. Having submitted evidence of the pluralism in perspectives and thought patterns, which have little foothold in the EIA decision-making process, the recommendation is made that further research should explore how the EIA process can be equipped to consider economic growth pluralism and decision heuristics towards the outcome of sustainable forms of development. Masters

M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Sustainable development has been realised as a way of practicing sustainability in protecting the environment, economy and the society from negative impacts. In order to curb damage to the natural environment, regulatory measures have been put in place. These include, the principles of responsible tourism incorporated into the SANS 1162 and Environmental Impact Assessments (hereafter EIAs) for specific geographic areas as provided for in the National Environmental Management Act (hereafter NEMA). In 2001, South African National Parks (SANParks) introduced the concept of lodges on ‘private concessions’ (privately-owned tourist lodges on state land) to bring social and economic benefits to the Kruger National Park (KNP) and the surrounding community. The environmental mandate and responsibilities of SANParks within the KNP in northeastern South Africa had to be incorporated into the private concessions’ initiative, in accordance with the Responsible Tourism Guidelines (DEAT, 2002:3). Independent environmental control officers (ECOs) were appointed as per environmental authorisation (EA) to monitor compliance with EIA follow-up as prescribed by EA conditions and SANParks arrangements. However, it is not known how effective these independent ECOs are in ensuring sustainability. Consequently, this research’s aim was to gain a sound understanding of the intended function and effectiveness of ECOs who conduct EIA follow-ups at private concessions in the KNP with a view to promoting sustainable development and responsible tourism. In light of the above, the research questions that guided this study were: Firstly, what is the role of EIA follow-up and ECOs in relation to responsible tourism in KNP? Secondly, how and to what extent do independent ECOs add value to tourism development projects in the KNP? A literature review was conducted to answer the first question. To answer the second question, the researcher conducted face-to-face and telephonic structured interviews (using questionnaires) with both SANParks personnel and concession staff at selected KNP concession projects. Thematic data analysis was performed to identify themes in the responses. There was sufficient evidence that ECOs added value in promoting responsible tourism in KNP by conducting bi-annual audits and checking for compliance through EIA follow-up. The results revealed that the majority of the respondents agreed that the ECOs did add value by ensuring that EIA follow-ups was done in the KNP to promote responsible tourism. This indicates that independent ECOs are effective as verifiers of EIA implementation and EIA follow-up, thus ensuring that there is environmental compliance. These results were based on the assessment, evaluation, judgement and scoring of the respondents on those aspects that were under the scrutiny of the ECOs. The main limitation of this study was that it is not generalisable to other contexts, because the mandate given to KNP ECOs is site-specific. Therefore, while future researchers might refer to this study as one assessment of the value of ECOs, further studies need to be done on their effectiveness in other contexts in which the ECOs are required to fulfil differing mandates. Although there were some limitations, it was recommended that future involvement of ECOs on EIA follow-up in responsible tourism should include namely, the economic, social and environmental aspects in order to achieve the objectives of sustainable development. Masters

M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus The research study aims to investigate pluralism within Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA) in South Africa from perspectives of regulators within the strategic decision making process. Pluralism is the concept of coexistence of various role-players that hold a collective responsibility to manage their institutional environments and objectives towards attaining a strategy. According to researchers, there is a need for “fit for purpose” approaches to environmental planning and decision making thus acknowledging that the current compulsory tool of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) does not sufficiently fulfil this role. The study objectives are to understand the extent of pluralism experienced in SEA processes and the perspectives of perceived objectives of SEA’s for regulators. Regulators are key in the decision making process of environmental assessments and assumed certain objectives and expectations throughout the process of developing an SEA. An embedded case study approach will be applied in order to collect and analyse data of perspectives of regulators who are fundamental to the process of SEA development. The perceived expectations of regulators need to be managed through an approach that employs pluralism in order to support an inclusive and well developed SEA. A case study selection criteria was used on the basis of (1) high profile SEA, (2) time for reflection, (3) decision-making context and (4) well establish SEA system. Research using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with regulators and other interested groups provides both perspectives of regulators to be analysed as well as the inclusive nature of pluralism by interested groups. The aim of the study is not to analyse the achievements of the SEA. The study is focused on the share the shared perspectives and shared group perspectives in order to provide findings that reflect on the integration of pluralism within the SEA. The findings concluded that regulator perspectives are share over the majority of the regulator group. This holds a strong link between the SEA process and plurality of regulator group that is present within SEA. Analysis of regulator perspectives in relation to other interested groups indicated that there is a weak link between perspectives of regulators and interested group stakeholders. The regulator group perspectives centred on departmental and institutional mandates and treasury considerations in order for SEA’s to provide the necessary information for informed decision making within the group. The extent of pluralism was showcased in the shared objectives and perspectives of regulators in terms of SEA development and processes. These are integrated into the process along with various interested groups that provide crucial information for Policy, Plans and Programmes (PPP) development and decision-making. The perspectives held by the interested groups extended to the shared perspective of streamlining authorisation processes for future project level development and the plurality of challenges that occurred due to the limitations of regulator mandates and responsibilities. There is a need for plurality of regulator perspectives to be included in SEA with specific regard to regulator mandates as well as a common understanding of regulator perspectives to be considered by interested groups and stakeholders. Pluralism is an aiding sustainable approach for SEA’s and may to be implemented with a shared benefit for various regulators to attain inclusive and reliable information from interested groups. This is needed to make informed decisions and realise the value of SEA on various scales for PPP development. Masters

M (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Historically dependent on fossil fuels, the energy generation landscape in South Africa has begun and will continue to move towards renewable energy. The typical financing arrangements of renewable energy projects in South Africa is such that the sector is subject to environmental, social and governance management requirements. ISO 14001 has shown to improve environmental performance stakeholder and investor assurance, and regulatory compliance and has been the subject of a great deal of research, although less so in South Africa. The objective of this study was to establish the practices and perceptions of ISO 14001 by independent renewable energy developer-operators in South Africa. The research sought to establish the real or perceived drivers for, and barriers against implementation, the benefits that were realised, and criticism of implementation, and finally, the perception and experiences of ISO 14001 certification. Two research methods were employed: a literature review, and semi-structured interviews. Eight independent commercial wind or solar operations (developer-operators) who currently operate, or which will be operational within the next 12 months, were identified and their environmental representatives interviewed. Due to COVID-19 constraints, the interviews were conducted virtually. The results found that organisations, particularly the larger organisations and organisations based in Europe, do implement the Standard, and are ISO 14001 certified. The main drivers for implementation were found to be financial drivers, as a result of lender requirements and shareholder assurance, with organisations benefiting from improved risk and compliance management, streamlined processes, and increased environmental awareness within the organisation. The perceived barriers against implementing ISO 14001 were found to be the administrative and financial implications. Criticism was directed at the ISO 14001 in general, whereby some respondents felt that the Standard was a duplication of existing requirements and offered no value to their organisations. Similarly, the perception and value of certification were generally negative, both as a result of the cost versus benefit of certification and the respondents’ experience of symbolic certification. Although the majority of respondents implemented, and are certified in, the Standard, their opinions and experiences are divided as to the benefits and value of the Standard. This division is further supported by the literature. The study could have benefited from a larger sample size as interviews were only conducted from relatively narrow selection criteria. Ideally canvasing for such a study could be conducted at industry workshops or conferences which may improve the willingness of organisations to participate. Unfortunately, COVID-19 prevented such engagements. There would be value in conducting further research into the implementation and value of ISO 14001 in emerging renewable energy markets such as India, Brazil, Chile, and Kenya. Future investigation into the performance benefits of the Standard in the renewable energy sector and emerging markets would add be valuable. Additionally, further research into the overlap between lender requirements and ISO 14001 would add value to the body of literature on ISO 14001 going forward. Masters

This research evaluates Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report quality for a selected sample of development projects in South African national parks. It applies an adapted version of an international EIA report quality review package to 24 developments within 10 national parks, across three EIA regimes. The results suggest good EIA report quality across all four quality review areas, with improvement over time, but also highlight particular weaknesses in terms of dealing with waste and, to a lesser extent, with significance and mitigation. To build on this research, the development of a sector-specific EIA report quality review package is recommended, with more emphasis on the strategic context, waste and water-related aspects. The conclusion is that EIA is well positioned to remain an important decision support instrument for developments within national parks. Conservation implications: The results show that EIA reports for developments in South African national parks are generally of sufficient quality for decision-making that benefits conservation. However, weaker performance regarding waste, significance determination, water-related impacts and a lack of consideration of strategic context requires a conservation-specific EIA report quality review package to improve report quality in the areas of weakness and thereby increase the value of EIA as an instrument for environmental governance and sustainable development in conservation areas.

With increased political polarisation and the emergence of populist governments around the world – many of which erode regulatory requirements such as EIA – there is an urgent need to be able to identify and explain the potential benefits of EIA for government. The aim of this paper is to explore the benefits of EIA for government as perceived by EIA regulators. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 175 representatives from the South African EIA regulator. The questionnaire asked the respondents to indicate what they perceive to be potential and realised EIA benefits for government. They were also asked how they recommend the gap between potential and realised benefits might be closed. The results show that the main perceived benefits of EIA to government relate to short-term, project-specific benefits such as the protection of local biodiversity, public participation, legal compliance and enforcement, as well as certain immediate economic benefits. The promotion of sustainable development is not considered a realistically achievable benefit for EIA. It is recommended that for EIA to clearly define and achieve its potential benefits for government, it needs to rediscover and embrace its roots as a project level instrument aimed at dealing with biophysical impacts and environmental protection

The costs of conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) are well known. Yet the benefits of EIA are much more intangible, leading to a situation where some question its value as the tool of choice for informing decision makers of the sustainability consequences of their actions. Exponents of EIA have thus called for more research on the benefits of EIA in order to provide better evidence on its costs versus benefits, and therefore its value as a decision-making tool. This paper contributes to this evidence by exploring the perceived potential benefits and perceived realised benefits of EIA from a regulators' perspective in the context of sustainable development. Using South Africa as a case study, one third of all the officials responsible for EIA review and decision-making (referred to in this paper as the “regulator”) were surveyed to identify their perceptions of the benefits of EIA, and their ideas on how to bridge the gap between potential benefits and realised benefits. The paper contributes suggestions for the analysis of benefits in a sustainable development context, and identifies some additional benefits currently missing from the literature. In a South African context, the key potential and realised benefits as perceived by regulators are the protection of biodiversity, public participation, access to information, mitigation of environmental impacts, and legal compliance and enforcement.

MSc (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus One of the solutions to many environmental challenges associated with loss of biodiversity, water, and air pollution lies in compliance with legislative requirements (Parker, 2000). One such legislative requirement is effective co-operative environmental governance agreements (Parker, 2000). The effectiveness of co-operative environmental governance agreements has been questioned by several authors since their establishment (Lehman, 2009; Blackman et al., 2009; Khan, 2016; Du Plessis, 2008). This questioning has created two schools of thought on the effectiveness of these agreements. Literature provides an argument whereby some authors believe that there are legislative provisions and mechanisms in place and that adoption and implementation of the agreements by stakeholders can lead to positive integrated environmental governance practices (Du Plessis, 2008). However, an opposing view is from critics of the agreements who argue that an integrated systems approach is required to improve the performance of the current environmental co-operative government agreements. The argument of the critics presents that they are not convinced that without addressing the fragmented environmental management systems, capacity constraints in South African environmental fraternity, it may result in significant environmental benefits (Kotzé, 2012). In light of these differing views concerning the effectiveness of the current environmental co-operative governance, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of co-operative governance agreements when dealing with multiple environmental authorisations in South Africa. The effectiveness of co-operative governance agreements was assessed in the context of Memorandum of Agreements (MoAs) regarding Disposal Site Authorisation using Eskom's Ash Disposal Facilities (ADF). This was executed by analysing the legal provisions created, motivations provided to support, mechanisms to influence, and challenges associated with the implementation of the MoA. The study also evaluated the environmental governance structures and the extent to which the MoA's objectives are met. Based on qualitative interviews with a sample including Government Officials1, Eskom Environmental Advisors and Environmental Consultants who worked on Eskom's ADFs' environmental authorisation processes, and analysis of relevant archival documents, the study suggested limited effectiveness of the agreement in achieving the expected goal in terms of the MoA objectives. The results did indicate that there are legislative provisions for co-operative governance agreements in South Africa. The main reasons for the limited achievement and the main challenges on the effectiveness of the agreements associated with lack/inadequacy of resources in numbers, the capacity of officials on technical skills, and lacking commitments and responsibility from Senior government officials to implement the MoA. Additional challenges were related to the symbolic implementation and enforced implementation by government departments (i.e., its lack of substantive implementation). Even though this research study was restricted to Eskom's Ash Disposal Facilities, which suggests that there is limited effectiveness of a MoA as a co-operative governance agreement tool in achieving expected MoA objectives, it should not be inferred that this inadequacy of co-operative governance implementation is as inadequate to other waste applications and applicants, as it is observed in the case of Eskom. This study recommends an extension of the investigation of the effectiveness of this governance tool to other waste applications as a follow-up study. Following this study, it is anticipated that a collective presentation can conclude, and a proper decision might be made to influence this tool. Masters

PhD (Geography and Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is internationally one of the most widely adopted policy implementation instruments, introduced in more than 180 countries world-wide South Africa has a long and proud history of environmental assessment practice dating back to the 1970s. Therefore, periodical system evaluation is considered a key component of any well-functioning EIA system, with various system evaluations having been conducted internationally. EIA is sometimes seen as a barrier to development due to its requirements for rigorous participatory processes and scientific investigation which may often be viewed as time-consuming and expensive. There is also a general and ongoing concern about the efficiency, quality and effectiveness of the EIA system. To this end this research had as its aim the application of the Theory of Change method of evaluation to a specific EIA system, in this instance the South African system. The research identified, through the application of the Theory of Change method, seven key evaluation questions which would inform the system evaluation with the view to making recommendations. The key evaluation questions were answered through the evaluation of identified key performance indicators, resulting in recommendations being made for improvement of the South African EIA system. Doctoral

MSc (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Rampant industrialisation, urbanisation and other activities pertaining to developmental actions have contributed to the deterioration of the environment. Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) are therefore now conducted worldwide to gather positive or negative information pertaining to proposed development projects. EIAs enable governments to make decisions on the basis of the potential impact of projects on the environment. However, previous studies that were conducted around the globe have shown that not much importance has been placed on issues of human health in EIAs. The motive for conducting this study was to determine whether the above situation was also true in the South African context. Consequently, the objective of the study was to establish the amount of emphasis placed on health issues in EIA practices and the extent to which health impacts are considered in EIAs in South Africa. The research question that guided this study was: “To what extent are health impacts considered in South African EIA practice?” The Lee-Colley review package, which was adapted to predominately address health impacts, was utilised to conduct a thematic analysis of 23 EIA reports that were produced in several developmental sectors in South Africa, such as mining, power stations, road and rail, and buildings. The review areas were designed using the International Association of Impact Assessment (IAIA) international health guidelines. The results suggest that developmental sectors incorporate health impacts differently within the EIA reports with mining and power station developmental projects taking the leading in considering health impacts in EIAs even thought there were inadequacies which can be due to lack of standardised method of addressing health impacts. The overall assessment revealed that EIA reports incorporated health impacts to a lower extend. Focus of health impacts were mainly on how the projects degraded the air or water quality, or could increase the noise pollution. The direct and indirect effects of health determinants aspects of affected populations, health equity were omitted in the reports. It is essential to educate the environmental practitioners about the need to include health impacts in their EIAs, with an adherence to the IAIA international guidelines. There is a need to allocate a section in the reports to address all health impacts, irrespective of the type of development. Masters

PhD (Geography and Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Contemporary civilisations are living unsustainably, rapidly depleting and degrading the world’s natural capital or resource base through overexploitation, consumption and pollution. Governments act as custodians of the environment and must ensure the protection and sustainable use of environmental resources in order to sustain service delivery that benefits all. To a great extent, governments and organs of state, all over the world, including South Africa (SA), fail miserably in their quest to effectively administer or manage environmental impacts. Ineffective environmental governance often leads to confusion in environmental mandates and responsibilities, poorly structured or defined environmental policies and objectives, and ultimately, weak or ineffective environmental regulatory regimes that fail to act on blatant environmental destruction and regulatory non-compliance. The inclusion of environmental auditing at organs of state can be another effective tool to investigate and reinforce environmental governance, performance and oversight. Supreme Audit Institutions (SAIs) all over the world have become more aware of the role which they can play, with some that have already significantly reformed and expanded their traditional financial mandates to include environmental oversight, accountability and governance, through public sector auditing. The focal point of this research was to advance understanding of SAIs’ public sector audit methodology processes, and where best to include environmental issues and risks, so as to enhance environmental accountability. The focus of the study was further devolved to a local, South African SAI context, interrogating the role and how public sector regularity auditing might assist in enhancing environmental accountability. The qualitative research design used a mixed method approach and initially explored the global public sector audit trends and rationale followed by SAIs through extensive literature reviews, a comparative analysis of the International Organisation of Supreme Audit Institution (INTOSAI), the Working Group for Environmental Auditing (WGEA)’s last 5 environmental audit survey results (covering the period 2004 – 2017) and some 21 survey questionnaires distributed to the INTOSAI WGEA Chair, the 6 regional WGEA secretariats and the International Centre for Environmental Audit and Sustainable Development (iCED). After interrogating global trends in the placement (choice of using a mandatory regularity- or voluntary audit approaches) and development of environmental issues and risks within the available public sector audit methodologies, it was narrowed down to a local, South African SAI (Auditor-General of South Africa) perspective, with locally focussed literature reviews, 27 face-to-face interviews and 113 survey questionnaires, conducted and distributed to selected internal and external stakeholders. The data obtained were analysed thematically and the research indicated that the placement of environmental issues and risks within public sector audit methodology processes may differ according to, or be dependent on, a wealth of variables, such as the effectiveness of environmental regulatory regimes, mandates of Supreme Audit Institutions (SAIs), available environmental audit resources and ultimately, the use and impact of reporting. Results from both the global and local research methodologies used recognised voluntary performance audits as the preferred placement for environmental issues and risks within SAIs’ available public sector audit methodology processes. There was however also a strong tendency to also consider or follow a comprehensive approach for inclusion within both mandatory (financial and compliance) and voluntary (performance and other priority or special) audits. The study confirms how environmental inclusion and placement within the various public sector audit types, and particularly within mandatory regularity auditing, can enhance environmental accountability, within global and local South African perspectives. A noteworthy recommendation to SAIs includes exploration and capacitation of their regularity audit resource base, as another viable option, for continual assessment and reporting of significant environmental risks within the public sector. Doctoral

MSc (Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Environmental governance is complex in South Africa and is subject to a fragmented and ever-changing legislative framework. The National Environmental Management Air Quality Act, No. 39 of 2004 (NEMAQA) was promulgated in 2005 and replaced the 1965 Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act, No.45 of 1965 (APPA). The NEMAQA’s management framework promotes a collaborative and integrated approach (between polluters, the public and government) and assigns a strong mandate for air quality management to municipalities as the local sphere of government. The aim of this research was to determine the extent to which local authority is the appropriate sphere of government for air quality management in South Africa. This research focused on two Gauteng metropolitan municipalities namely, City of Tshwane (CoT) and City of Johannesburg (CoJ). According to the 2016 World Health Organisation (WHO) report on air pollution, Tshwane and Johannesburg were ranked amongst the highest air-polluted cities in South Africa. Out of 3000 locations which were monitored for air pollution by the WHO in 2016, Tshwane and Johannesburg were ranked positions 63 and 85 respectively. The methodology for this research was based on questionnaires, interviews, document and literature review. A questionnaire was administered to key local government officials involved in air quality management within these two municipalities and at provincial level. A total of 14 respondents took part in the questionnaire and interviews. The overall outcome of this study suggests that the two municipalities are struggling to fully implement NEMAQA due to financial constraints, capacity issues, political interference, lack of communication amongst and within departments and conflicting policies in various departments that are also contributors to air pollution. Masters