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Teacher readiness is the willingness of a teacher to implement a planned program successfully. Readiness is crucial in ensuring a program can be implemented at the individual or organizational level. The readiness of science teachers to implement Classroom-Based Assessment (CBA) determines the direction and success of primary school assessments in Malaysia. This pilot study aims to create and evaluate the Inventory of Science Teachers' Readiness in Implementing Classroom-based Assessment (ISTRI-CBA). There have been many studies on CBA. However, there are limitations in measuring the readiness of science teachers to implement CBA. The evaluation will be ineffective without a suitable tool to measure teacher readiness in CBA. Therefore, to determine the level of readiness of science teachers, the researcher needs an instrument that is valid, reliable, and appropriate to the context of the Ministry of Education, culture, and the current situation in Malaysia. It is necessary to have a conceptually and psychometrically substantial inventory. This challenge was addressed by developing the ISTRI-CBA, comprising five measurement dimensions: knowledge about CBA, skills of CBA, resource support, attitudes, and professional values. The development of ISTRI-CBA requires validity and reliability for its use. This study aims to (1) test the quality characteristics of the ISTRI-CBA items and (2) determine the reliability of the ISTRI-CBA obtained using the Rasch Model measurement. The research involves the administration of a survey questionnaire to 44 science teachers in a district in Malaysia. The findings show that the ISTRI-CBA, comprising 157 items, has good psychometric characteristics and meets the measurement criteria of the Rasch measurement model. The item quality and reliability also prove the suitability of the whole dimension. The study's findings provide evidence of the empirical implications that consistently support ISTRI-CBA as a valid and reliable instrument to measure teachers' readiness to implement CBA in science subjects. The findings also reveal that the ISTRI-CBA can measure science teachers' readiness to implement CBA.

In today's fast-paced ICT-driven world, understanding the factors influencing the effectiveness of online teaching and learning is paramount, especially during the Movement Control Order (MCO) when physical educational activities are restricted. Assessing the efficacy of undergraduate students under these circumstances can be particularly challenging, and the resulting conclusions may vary depending on the context. Consequently, this study is driven by three primary objectives. Firstly, this study seeks to employ factor analysis as a robust method for validating the selected online teaching and learning instruments. Secondly, it endeavors to categorize the survey instruments into distinct core variables using Principal Axis Factor analysis. Additionally, the study aims to harness multiple regression analysis to uncover the factors influencing the efficiency of online teaching and learning. To achieve these objectives, an online questionnaire was administered to 107 students enrolled in a university in Malaysia. The collected data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The results of the multiple regression analysis revealed that lecturer roles and student attitudes have significant positive relationships with the success of online teaching and learning. In contrast, flexibility exhibited a significant but inverse association. Despite the global transition into the endemic phase of COVID-19, this study aspires to furnish valuable insights for lecturers, students, and university administrators regarding the ongoing practices of online teaching and learning. Ultimately, these insights can empower policymakers to formulate optimal strategies thereby benefiting all stakeholders involved. In conclusion, this study acknowledges its limitations and offers recommendations for further research.

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a significant theoretical framework for investigating and comprehending student learning and motivation, which are crucial aspects of physical education. The purpose of this study is to identify the reliability and validity of the Malay language version of SIMS-14 items, as well as to determine the effect of four-week intervention teaching utilizing the flipped classroom method affects primary school students' situational motivation. A total of 421 students participated in this study. Reliability analysis based on the Rasch model found that the individual reliability value was 0.91 and the items reliability was 0.85. CFA analysis reported X[superscript 2]/df = 2.037, CFI = 0.969, GFI = 0.907 and RMSEA = 0.074 with internal validity for each variable based on Cronbach Alpha's ([alpha]) values ranging from 0.87 to 0.92. As for the value of Construct Validity (CR), the value of 0.88 to 0.95 is obtained by fulfilling the condition [greater than or equal to] 0.60 and the value of Average Variance Extracted (AVE) is between 0.70 to 0.86. Therefore, the data collected using SIMS-14 items were analyzed with One-Way ANCOVA and the results affirmed that students from the experimental group exhibited an enhancement in situational motivation based on flipped classroom method better than the control group. Besides, the results of the study revealed that the SIMS-14 items consist of four factors that are consistent and prove the quality of psychometry. In addition, the SIMS-14 items instrument attempts to represent constructs of intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation, and amotivation that can be widely used for assessment in the context of PE.

Numeracy and digital skills are among the most crucial skills that any graduate should possess before entering the workforce, regardless of their field of study. Therefore, both skills should not be treated as an "add on" skill but viewed as essential graduate attributes needing to be purposefully incorporated into the curriculum instead of mere chance. By understanding the learners' numeracy and digital skills abilities, educators can create suitable learning outcomes, activities, and assessments, enabling them to acquire the skills. The objective of this study is to create a framework for testing numeracy (NSI) and digital skills (DSI) using a cross-sectional design and quantitative methodology. The research entails generating a questionnaire, verifying it via a rigorous procedure of expert content validation, and focusing on sufficiency, clarity, coherence, and relevance. A pilot study involving 218 students from various disciplines was conducted to measure the reliability of the framework using Cronbach Alpha. Feedback from experts was then used to enhance the questionnaire, resulting in the finalisation of five components for the Digital Skills Instrument (DSI): information literacy, computer and technology literacy, digital communication and collaboration skills, digital identity and well-being, and digital ethics. Meanwhile, the five components of the Numeracy Skills Instrument (NSI) encompassed operation and calculation, graphical representation, quantitative reasoning and logical thinking, complex number (advanced concept), spatial visualisation and geometric reasoning. The results indicated a strong internal consistency across all components for both tools, with alpha values ranging from 0.847 to 0.958 for DSI and 0.916 to 0.964 for NSI. Corrected item-total correlations also depicted intercorrelation between items for both instruments. To sum up, the findings demonstrate that the DSI and NSI have high reliability and validity. Because both tools are reliable and valid for measuring digital and numeracy skills in the Malaysian context, they can be confidently used for future research.

Stress among teachers is a debilitating issue that has been plaguing the educational landscape in Malaysia for a long time. Past studies have investigated this issue, and most studies focused on identifying the causes of stress among teachers. However, recent studies have looked at stress as a process that involves a threat (stressors), an appraisal and defence mechanism against the threat (coping mechanism) and the breakdown of the defence (effect). Therefore, it is essential to look at teachers' stress from these three angles. This study aims to introduce a new stress index for Malaysian teachers that seeks to identify teachers' stressors, coping mechanisms and effects of stress. The Fuzzy Delphi method was employed in constructing the stress index as this method used both experts' opinions and analytics that produced an index with high validity and reliability. A proposed stress index with 101 items was evaluated by a panel of experts from linguistics medicine, psychology, linguistics and counselling. Their inputs were then analysed using the Fuzzy Delphi method. The items were then refined with experts' consultation. Furthermore, the finalised stress index proposed a new indicator of stressor, financial problem, an indicator absent in the previously developed stress index. This study has shown the effectiveness of using the Fuzzy Delphi method in developing a new stress index to help teachers, school administrators, and the Ministry of Education understand teacher stress in Malaysia.

This study validated a scale of students' learning satisfaction (SLS) and self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies in MOOCs to measure the relationship between SRL and SLS based on Zimmerman's SRL theory and Piccoli's web-based Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) effectiveness theory. The process of developing the scale included literatures review, face and content validity, pilot study, data collection, and data analysis. An online self-reporting questionnaire was designed to include constructs such as goal setting (GS), task strategy (TS), self-evaluation (SE), help-seeking (HS), environment structuring (ES), time management (TM) and students' satisfaction (SA). All these constructs were assessed on a 5-point Likert scale. The data was collected from 333 Malaysian students in higher education, and it was analysed by using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) technique. The resultant constructs have shown empirical result of good reliability and validity where the coefficients of Cronbach's alpha were ranged between 0.784 to 0.877, HTMT values were passed of 0.90 tests and factors loading were more than 0.7. The resulting constructs can be used by the practitioners, academicians, researchers, and policy makers to have a clear understanding on SLS and SRL in MOOC so that, a suitable, effective, positive, and meaningful MOOC learning environment could be established in the universities, higher education learning institutions and/or training organizations.

Personal multicultural experience may contribute to an individual's competency in working with multicultural clients. Individuals with higher multicultural exposure and interactions are expected to have greater cultural resources that are crucial when working with diversity. Thus, this study aims to examine the psychometric properties of the Malaysian version of the Multicultural Experience Inventory-Revised (MEI-R). The MEI-R is a self-rated questionnaire that measures individuals' multicultural exposure and interactions during their formative years and current multicultural encounters. This study involved 205 counsellor trainees who were selected using cluster random sampling. Previously the Malay translated and adapted MEI-R had undergone the preliminary exploratory factor analysis. In this study, the focus is to examine and confirm the factor structure, reliability and validity of the translated and adapted MEI-R. This study also reported the value of external validity. In this study, the results confirm the factor structure, reliability, and validity of the translated and adapted MEI-R. All in all, the translated and adapted MEI-R has high reliability and sufficient validity values, indicating that it may be used successfully on counsellor trainees of all genders.

The ultimate goal of this study is to test the validity of the newly developed Sustainable Leadership for Learning Questionnaire (SLLQ) in terms of predictive validity on teacher satisfaction towards teaching. Apart from that this study also to test the convergent and discriminant validity of SLLQ. To achieve the objective of the study, a cross-sectional survey design was utilized. A total of 190 teachers from national primary schools in Kedah, Malaysia was randomly selected to participate in this study. The Teaching Satisfaction Scale (TSS) were used to measure teachers' satisfaction as criterion variable. Using PLS-SEM analysis, this study found that the Sustainable Leadership for Learning Questionnaire (SLLQ) is a valid questionnaire to predict teachers' satisfaction towards teaching. This study has contributed to the establishment of newly constructed questionnaire namely SLLQ and also to the development of leadership literature in the context of primary school in Malaysia.

Anger is a topic that requires intervention from teachers, counsellors, psychologists, parents, and all communities. The expressions of anger are subjective and sometimes hard to identify. Thus, anger should be measured more objectively, while the expressions need to be examined closely. The purpose of this study is to provide valid confirmation for development of an online instrument to measure the types of anger expression among adolescents. Data were collected from 935 adolescents from nine schools in northern Malaysia and the theoretical literature search. The data were analysed to provide evidence of construct validity in terms of item factor analysis, reliability estimates, and correlation between the types of anger expressions. Findings were used to develop an online Adolescent Anger Instrument. It measures five types of anger expressions, namely, physical, verbal, intrinsic, extrinsic, and passive. The results showed that the instrument is internally consistent with high evidence of construct validity. Exploratory factor analysis, with varimax rotation, suggested the existence of five distinct types of anger as conceptualised. Meanwhile, the correlation between types of anger expressions indicates the strength of the relationship between them. Discussions on the findings are provided, while suggestions for future research are also described.

The Higher-Order Thinking Skill Test Instrument on Quadratic Equations (HOTS-QE) was developed to measure the level of HOTS on the topic of quadratic equations among secondary school students. The HOTS-QE instrument consists of 17 structured subjective items divided into two smaller questions according to the three levels of HOTS, namely applying, analysing, and evaluating. This study proposes a design and development research (DDR) approach via a development research that was done through an organised and systematic process. The DDR-oriented development process comprised seven stages namely source analysis, theory, development, content validity, validation of the HOTS domain accuracy, language validity, and pilot study. The development of the HOTS-QE instrument comprised seven stages, namely source analysis, theory, development, content validity, validation of the HOTS domain accuracy, language validity, and pilot study. The content validity of the instrument was evaluated by five mathematics education experts. The results showed that the item content validity index (I-CVI) value of each item was above 0.70 while the content validation per scale (S-CVI) value was 0.98. Results from the interrater evaluation also showed that the HOTS level accuracy of the instrument items had achieved the Cohen's Kappa coefficient value of 0.63. In addition, findings from the pilot study also showed that the Cronbach's alpha coefficient value was 0.79, the discrimination index value of each item was between 31.11% to 66.67%, and the difficulty index values were between 40.74% to 70.00%. These results suggest that the HOTS-QE instrument has an acceptable level of validity. The development of this instrument provides a more varied learning assessment that can foster students' interests in learning, help them to improve HOTS, and provide opportunities for students to directly apply the knowledge of quadratic equations learned at school in their daily life.

Computational thinking (CT) is a method for solving complex problems, but also gives people an inventive inspiration to adapt to our smart and changing society. Globally it has been considered as vital abilities for solving genuine issues successfully and efficiently in the 21st century. Recent studies have revealed that the nurture of CT mainly centered on measuring the technical skill. There is a lack of conceptualization and instruments that cogitate on CT disposition and attitudes. This study attends to these limitations by developing an instrument to measure CT concerning dispositions and attitudes. The instruments' validity and reliability testing were performed with the participation from secondary school students in Malaysia. The internal consistency reliability, standardized residual variance, construct validity and composite reliability were examined. The result revealed that the instrument validity was confirmed after removing items. The reliability and validity of the instrument have been verified. The findings established that all constructs are useful for assessing the disposition of computer science students. The implications for psychometric assessment were evident in terms of giving empirical evidence to corroborate theory-based constructs and also validating items' quality to appropriately represent the measurement.

Computational thinking is a strategy of thinking to tackle complex problems. There is a paucity of conceptualization and instruments that cogitate on computational thinking disposition and attitudes. This study reacts to these constraints by establishing an instrument to test computational thinking related dispositions and attitudes. The computational thinking disposition Instrument is an indicator of student's disposition towards computational thinking in daily life. The objective of this study is to investigate the psychometric features using Rasch model. Data of 535 form four computer science students in Malaysia were obtained. Instrument consists of 55 core measures in three domains: cognitive, affective and conative. The Rasch analysis indicated good psychometric features of the instrument. In these three domains no items showed disordered thresholds and the reliability was good. As a result, the Rasch analysis provides basis for cautious optimism permitting more detailed and finer level investigation of the instrument.

Postgraduate students have to play active roles in self-determined learning, as major agent in their own learning and research activities. There is a lack of validated research instruments to measure self-determined learning among postgraduate students. The Postgraduate Self-Determined Learning Questionnaire (PSLQ) was specifically developed to fill in the gaps. This study aims to examine the validity and reliability of the PSLQ through exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The original version of PSLQ has 59 items and it was administered to a sample of 201 postgraduate students from a research-intensive university in Malaysia. The results of EFA revealed that PSLQ measures four distinct factors; learner-centered learning, interactive non-linear learning, double-loop reflection, and capacity development, which accounted for 54.22% of the variance in self-determined learning. The total number of items in PSLQ has been reduced to 42, after 17 items were removed. The instrument demonstrated excellent internal consistency, with a Cronbach's alpha value of [alpha]=0.959. The findings-suggest that PSLQ is a valid and reliable instrument that can be used to measure self-determined learning among postgraduate students. Implications of the research findings are discussed in this paper.

The purpose of this article is to develop and validate an instrument on Academic Enhancement Support for Malaysian student-athletes. The instrument development process began earlier in previous research's stages. Thirty-five questionnaires were distributed to Malaysia Public University student-athletes who competed at the university and state levels. It took a week to collect data, with a 100% return rate and one damaged questionnaire removed. Winstep version 3.69.1.11 was used to conduct three analyses: item-person reliability and separation index, statistical fit, and standardised residual correlation for item dependent. Cronbach's alpha of 0.96 indicates high reliability, with all items displaying a positive value for item polarity. Thirty items were identified as being misfit, five of which were removed and fifteen of which were revised. In the final analysis, ten pairs of items were dictated to be redundant, and ten items were eliminated following selection. In total, 15 items were removed from the instrument, leaving 82 items in the validated version. In conclusion, the instrument developed is a valid instrument capable of validating the student-perception athlete's of the support necessary for academic advancement during actual study.

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), the fast developing teaching and learning platforms of global interest, are the product of higher education's expanded usage of e-learning. MOOCs have been heralded as the potential educational breakthrough for the 21st century. A positive attitude toward self-efficacy is essential for successful MOOC implementation. However, only a few studies have been conducted to ascertain a student's MOOC efficacy level, and a very limited scale for assessing a student's MOOC efficacy has been identified in the context of Malaysia. This study aims to develop and validate a student's MOOC-efficacy scale for higher institutions. In this study, students' MOOC-efficacy was conceived in four ways (i.e. information searching, making queries, MOOC learning, and MOOC usability). A descriptive research design with a scale was employed to collect information from 289 students enrolled in higher institutions. The Educational and Psychological Testing Standards were adapted to develop a scale to gauge students' MOOC-efficacy. The scale's appropriate items, as well as its validity and reliability, were determined using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). Significant levels of validity and reliability for the developed scale were found. The scale comprised four dimensions, i.e., information searching (three items), making queries (seven items), MOOC learning (six items) and MOOC usability (seven items), amounting to a total of 23 items. This scale was then used to determine the efficacy of higher institution students in using MOOCs. The eigenvalues of the four MOOC efficacy dimensions were within the range of 1.39 to 8.49. The factor structures explained 63.9% of the total variance. The scores of reliability varied in the range of 0.822 to 0.890. This work produced a psychometrically sound scale to measure students' MOOC efficacy. Students, educators, administrators, and other individuals may benefit from the application of the verified MOOC efficacy scale. The information generated from the scale can be utilized to determine the training needs of students, educators and MOOC developers.

Geometrical measurement is one of the most difficult fields in primary school mathematics and regularly found to be an area of weaknesses. The factors affecting the low understanding is due to the lack of valid and reliable assessment instruments. Thus, this study aimed to develop and validate a Geometrical Measurement Skill Instrument (GMSI) to assess Year Five National school pupils' geometrical measurement skills in geometrical measurement. GMSI was developed by applying the Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) Taxonomy and was constructed in the super item format which consisted of 24 items altogether. This study applied a survey approach to assess 132 Year Five pupils' geometrical measurement skills. The content validity was examined using the content validity index (CVI) analysis. For the construct validity, data were obtained and analyzed using the Rasch analysis. From the CVI analysis, the results showed that GMSI could be used for the pilot study. Results for the construct validity indicated that GMSI fulfilled the psychometric properties and is valid and reliable. Hence, the results could help teachers and pupils to diagnose the strength and weaknesses of geometrical measurement and help them to plan systematic remedy to improve teaching and learning.

Multiple choice tests are widely applied to assess students' knowledge in science education. This study aimed at assessing the validity and reliability of Science Multiple-choice Test in Malaysia. The items for this test were formulated by the researcher together with a panel of science teachers and the head of the science department with close reference to Secondary School Standard Curriculum (KSSM) syllabus. The test consists of 50 multiple-choice items with four options. Rasch measurement model was adopted to evaluate the quality of the Science Multiple-choice Test in terms of reliability analysis, item polarity analysis (PTMEA-CORR), item fit analysis and Principal Component Analysis of Residuals (PCAR). The reliability analysis was performed using Cronbach's Alpha, and the results of reliability and separation index respectively indicated good reliability level of the test items. In order to improve the validity of the test, two negatively worded items (Q39 and Q40) were removed. Lastly, the PCAR analysis showed the unexplained variance in the 1st contrast (5.4%) was found to be well controlled and was below the ceiling value of one-third of the variance explained by the item (18.7%). However, the positive value of the disattenuated correlations indicate no evidence of the presence of secondary dimension.

Self-efficacy scales have been used widely across curriculum and demographic structures, while retaining their objectivity in a specific domain. This pilot study aimed to test the validity and reliability of adapted scales that incorporated four sources of self-efficacy (mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and emotional and physiological states), as well as science self-efficacy in the Malaysian context. A total of 109 students participated in this study. Data were analyzed through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), by using the partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) approach. The reliability criteria were determined through outer loading and composite reliability (CR). The assessment of convergent validity was performed using the average variance extracted (AVE), while the discriminant validity of this instrument was confirmed using the heterotrait--monotrait criterion (HTMT), along with the bootstrapping procedure. The CR values were at a satisfactory level, and two indicators were eliminated (PM3 and PMPR6) to improve the AVE values of the construct. All the values were assessed in the HTMT criterion, along with the confidence intervals in the range recommended to prove discriminant validity. The assessment of validity and reliability, through PLS-SEM, indicated that the scales used in this study are valid and statistically reliable.

This study aims to produce empirical evidence of the validity and reliability of instrument items for the competency framework of agricultural teaching staff in Malaysian agricultural vocational colleges. The validity and reliability of the framework were analyzed using Rasch Model Measurement assisted by Winsteps 3.72 software. This research instrument contained 116 items, which was distributed to 30 instructors at the Teluk Intan Agricultural Vocational College, Malaysia. The selection of respondents was made by strata random where the researcher makes the strata of the population according to the percentage and then selects randomly based on the desired percentage. Validity analysis of the instrument was done through four functional testings. For reliability and separation of respondents, it was found that the individual reliability value was very good and acceptable. The results of the item polarity analysis detected no negative value (-) in the Point Measure Correlation value. Item matching analysis found that 11 items had to be dropped as they failed to meet the required conditions. From the analysis on local dependence that determines dependent items based on the standardized residual correlation value, it was discovered that the correlation value for the items used was detected; 13 items need attention. The results of the data analysis checking the functionality of the items suggested that some items should be dropped. The omission of these items has provided evidence that the instrument of competence of agricultural instructors is crucial to have a high level of validity and reliability for use in actual studies.

There are limited research studies about the development of questionnaire to assess the level of primary school students' curiosity towards STEM education. In this research, curiosity towards STEM Education Questionnaire (CQ-STEM) instrument was developed based on Berlyne's Theory of Curiosity. CQ-STEM consisted of 10 items measuring the two constructs of curiosity towards STEM, namely exploration and acceptance. A total of 166 fifth graders aged 10 to 11 years enrolled in five urban schools in Sabah, Malaysia made up the research sample. Rasch Measurement Model was applied to determine the validity and reliability of CQ-STEM. The validity of the CQ-STEM instrument was well established among the constructs of exploration and acceptance through the person fit, item fit, item polarity, unidimensionality, and variable map. The CQ-STEM instrument was found to have a high reliability with a Cronbach's alpha value (KR-20) of 0.93. CQ-STEM has an excellent item reliability and moderate high item separation value of 0.96 and 4.83 respectively. In conclusion, CQ-STEM has good validity and high reliability in measuring curiosity towards STEM Education among primary school students.

Rational Numbers is an essential topic in mathematics since it necessitates the learning progression of more advanced topics. Nevertheless, previous literature shows that students are having difficulties in understanding the topic for numerous reasons. The inability of teachers in providing good examples during teaching is identified as one of the major causes. Thus, this study aims to develop a calibrated pool of items to facilitate teachers in giving appropriate examples for the topic of Rational Numbers. We employed a descriptive design to provide descriptions of the item statistics for the calibrated pool of items. Samples of the study consisted of 1,292 secondary school students. We used the Rasch measurement model framework via a quantitative approach to analyse the data. The results showed that all items demonstrated an acceptable quality of measuring students' ability in rational numbers while at the same time demonstrated high evidence of validity and reliability as well. Ultimately, we also provided suggestions on how teachers can use the pool of items in delivering appropriate examples in the classroom.

Computational thinking (CT) is one of the systematic tools in problem solving and widely accepted as an important skill in the 21st century. This study aimed to identify the effectiveness of the Chemistry Computational Thinking (CT-CHEM) Module on achievement in chemistry. This study also employed a quasi-experimental design with the participation of 85 form four students in Malaysia. The three types of teaching approaches, namely CT-CHEM Module Plugged-in (CTMP), CT-CHEM Module Unplugged + Plugged-in (CTMUP) and conventional method (CM), were systematically designed and implemented. The achievement of students was measured using an achievement test, where validity and reliability were justified and two-way ANCOVA was used to analyse the data. Findings confirmed that the achievement of students in chemistry is significantly higher in the CTMP group as compared with the CTMUP and CM groups. Instead, gender had no significant effect on students' chemistry achievement. This study concludes that when students were exposed to teaching and learning strategies by integrated CT through plugged-in strategy more effective than a combination of plugged-in and unplugged. Plugged-in visualisation activities are more effective in increasing the understanding and achievement of students compared with the combination of plugged-in and unplugged activities. Plugged-in through visualisation activities is more effective than the combination of plugged-in and unplugged. This is because, the abstract concept in electrochemistry is easier to understand by students through the visualisation activity approach using a computer in explaining the important concepts in the topic and because the whole content is interrelated.

There are limited research studies about the development of test instrument to assess the level of entrepreneurial thinking among children in STEM education. The purpose of this research was to develop an Entrepreneurial Science Thinking Test (ESTT) for primary school children in STEM Education and evaluate its validity and reliability. The ESTT was developed using experiential learning theory which comprised of five constructs, namely Observation, New Ideas, Innovation, Creativity, and Value. The ESTT consisted of ten open-ended question items that require children to answer questions in statements and draw sketches of ideas. The evaluation was conducted to determine the reliability and validity of ESTT which involved five subject matter experts and 166 11-yearold fifth graders from five urban schools in Sabah, Malaysia. The data obtained from fifth graders were computed using WINSTEPS software version 3.73 and analysed using the Rasch measurement model. The results indicated a high acceptable content validity and construct validity, high internal consistency, and excellent item reliability and item separation. Through item fit analysis, all items were retained. The finding established the reliability and validity of the ESTT and would therefore represent a valid and highly reliable instrument for measuring entrepreneurial science thinking among fifth graders in STEM Education.

It is very important for each individual to have a good emotional control in human well-being. In children level, they can manage their lives in a more orderly and harmonious if they have a good level of emotional intelligence (EI). However, in previous studies, there is no specific rubric developed to assess children EI. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to develop an EI rubric for children in the age group of four to six years. This study involved 20 children at preschool in Kuala Terengganu and by using the Cohen Kappa Consensus Coefficient Rating Scale formula, the research data were evaluated. To see the validity and reliability of the quantitative data, the Rasch Model analysis was utilised. To produce a competent, skilled, creative and innovative generation, the implications of this study are expected to be a basic study of children focusing on EI development in education.

Graduate unemployment has worsened following the global crisis caused by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and has created increased pressures on universities to enhance their graduates' employability. Past studies have indicated that mentoring programs can positively impact student soft skills development and employability. While undergraduate mentoring programs have mushroomed, research on undergraduate mentoring has not kept pace. This study used a mixed methods approach to examine the effectiveness of a public university's initiative in mentoring new undergraduates. Using the College Student Mentoring Scale (CSMS), this study found that the university's undergraduate mentoring initiative is moderately effective. The CSMS assessed four mentoring dimensions, namely academic subject knowledge support, degree and career support, psychological and emotional support as well as role modelling. The results of this study highlighted the mentoring functions that are considered as least effective so that informed and targeted efforts can be undertaken to enhance university freshman mentoring. Findings from this study suggest that a new dimension namely mentor-mentee compatibility, competencies and expectations could be added to the College Student Mentoring Scale (CSMS) to enhance concept operationalization. A limitation of this study is that it is based on mentees' perspectives only. Future research could include the perspectives of mentors as well.

This study was conducted to describe the validation of learning environment inventory (LEI) for secondary school contexts. A survey method was used for data collection through the 20-item LEI. This study consists of two phases. In Phase 1, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 21) involving data collected from 150 students, which resulted in the extraction of four factors related to learning environment; (a) Learner-centered, (b) Knowledge-centered, (c) Assessment-centered, and (d) Community-centered. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was carried out in Phase 2 with a new sample (N = 268) which resulted in strong model fit estimation. Such results confirmed the factor structure of Phase 1 and resulted in a final 12-item scale, which may be considered as an acceptable model.

This paper presents to develop and validate the Early Childhood Care and Pre-Service Lecturer Instrument constructed to determine their level of competencies toward the quality of early childhood carers-educators' professionalism in Malaysia. Components which affect the early childhood quality were characterized through inclusive literature reviews alongside interviews conducted with experts and experienced lecturers. In this study, two experts were elected to review this instrument so as to enhance its validity while 70 more lecturers in Malaysia were involved. There are four scales in principal component analysis pertaining the quality of early childhood professionalism, namely: (1) disposition, (2) knowledge, (3) skills, and (4) practices. The component loading range or respective instrument item were between 0.56 and 0.79, while the range for respective scales the alpha reliability coefficient were between 0.90 and 0.94. Concisely, the findings from this study corroborated the weight and consistency of the ECCE Pre-Service Lecturer Instrument.

The competency of multicultural counselling is an aspect which needs to be mastered by a counsellor in order to provide good counselling services to clients especially when dealing with clients of different culture. The purpose of this research is to examine the validity and reliability of the Multicultural Counselling Competencies Scale which was developed based on the local culture by using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). A total of 290 final year students participating in the first-degree counselling program from six public universities were selected randomly. The results of the analysis showed that the fit value for the comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker Lewis index (TLI), and normed fit index (NFI) respectively had fulfilled the fit value of 0.90 and above as suggested by the literature. The analysis also showed the average variance extracted (AVE) values for all three constructs were 0.669 (awareness), 0.764 (skills) and 0.642 (knowledge) respectively, indicating the validity convergent and discriminant reliability were achieved. CFA analysis has removed 7 out of 26 original items due to low loading factor. Overall, CFA analysis has successfully proven that competencies of multicultural counselling questionnaire as a multidimensional construct as it has been theorized and is appropriate for measuring the competencies of multicultural counselling in Malaysia.

This preliminary study was conducted to examine and verify the validity and reliability of the instrument on the Malaysian Academician Happiness Index (MAHI) on resilience. MAHI could be seen as a tool to measure the level of happiness and stress of academicians before determining how resilient the academicians were. Resilience can be defined as a mental ability of a person to recover quickly from illness or depression. MAHI instrument consisted of 66 items. The instrument was distributed to 40 academicians from three groups of universities which were the Focus University, Comprehensive University and Research University is using a survey technique. The instrument was developed to measure three main constructs which were the organization, individual and social that would affect the happiness and stress levels of academicians. This preliminary study employed the Rasch Measurement Model uses Winsteps software version 3.69.1.11. to examine the validity and reliability of the items. The results of the analysis of the MAHI instrument showed that the item reliability was 0.87, person reliability was 0.83 and value of Alpha Cronbach was 0.84. Meanwhile, misfit analysis showed that only there was one item with 1.46 logit that could be considered for dropping or needed improvement. Therefore, it highlighted that most of the items met the constructs' need and can be used as a measurement indicator of MAHI. The implication of this instrument can help Malaysian academicians to be more resilient in facing challenges in the future.

Purpose: Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is important in intercultural exchange, to address problems and conflicts which may arise due to miscommunication that results from interlocutors' diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Interlocutors may have different perceptions and interpretations of communicative behaviour. However, cultural and intercultural aspects seem to be ignored in teaching Mandarin as a foreign language (MFL) in Malaysian higher education institutions. Hence, the ICC level among local MFL learners is unknown. In this study, formative assessments were designed in a culturally integrated MFL module to investigate learners' level of ICC in a selected Malaysian polytechnic. Methodology: The polytechnic was selected as cultural competency was incorporated in the MFL course. A design and developmental research was carried out to design formative assessment for ICC based on experts' feedback. The assessment comprised Intercultural Discussion and Reflections, Cultural Discovery, Cultural Quizzes and an Intercultural Communicative Task. They were implemented to assess learners' ICC. Findings: The results indicate that different forms of assessment were suitable for assessing the respective competences, and that multiple forms of formative assessment should be employed to assess and improve MFL learners' ICC. Significance: Instructors in higher education could apply these forms of formative assessment to develop ICC among their MFL learners. The assessments could also be extended to intercultural communication competence development in other languages, which is important in a multicultural and globalized society.

Social-emotional competencies have been established as important predictors in children's mental health, school readiness and academic success. Age and developmentally appropriate screening for preschool children is important for early detection of developmental delays and early intervention. The purpose of this study is to measure preschool children's social emotional competencies (SEC) based on the Malaysian context using the Preschool Social Emotional Competency Inventory (P-SECI) developed to provide parents, teachers and childcare professionals with a standardized, normreferenced, reliable and valid instrument. A pool of 50 items was created for P-SECI, representing eight clusters of social emotional competencies in children: self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, relationship management, attachment, communication, responsible decision making and pro-social skills. This pilot study involved two public Annex preschools in Johor Bahru, purposely selected with 49 preschool children as respondents. Results showed that P-SECI has a high reliability index (Alpha Cronbach-Teachers 0.98 and Parents 0.95). Initial findings also showed that Teachers and Parents differ in their evaluation of their children's SEC according to age and gender. But for the age criteria, the mean difference is slightly wider in comparison to gender. Therefore, P-SECI is relevant in predicting children's mental health, school readiness and academic achievement. Results from the study also showed that the inventory holds promise as a reliable and valid instrument to evaluate SEC in young children according to the Malaysian context.

This study is an assessment of the reliability and validity analysis of Statistical Reasoning Test Survey (SRTS) instrument using the Rasch Measurement Model. The SRTS instrument was developed by the researchers to assess students' statistical reasoning in descriptive statistics among Tenth Grade science- stream students in rural schools. SRTS was a combination of a subjective test and an open-ended format questionnaire which contained of 12 items. The respondents' statistical reasoning was assessed based on these four constructs: Describing Data, Organizing Data, Representing Data and Analyzing and Interpreting Data. The sample comprised of 115 (76%) girls and 36 (24%) boys aged 15-16 years old from a rural district in Sabah, Malaysia. Overall, the SRTS instrument was found to have a high reliability with a Cronbach's alpha value (KR-20) of 0.81. Results also showed that SRTS has an excellent item reliability and high item separation value of 0.99 and 9.57 respectively. SRTS also has a good person reliability and person separation value of 0.81 and 2.04 respectively. Meanwhile, the validity of the SRTS instrument was appropriately established through the item fit, person fit, variable map, and unidimensionality. In conclusion, this study indicates that the SRTS is a reliable and valid instrument for measuring the statistical reasoning of science-stream students from rural secondary schools.

This is the first standard setting study in Malaysia aimed at developing Performance-Level Descriptors (PLDs) and determining cut scores that differentiate undergraduates with low, moderate and high employability skills using a newly developed Situational judgment Test (SJT). SJT items from five domains critical for future job employment: 1) critical thinking and problem solving, 2) enterprising, 3) integrity, 4) leadership and 5) teamwork were developed. Modified Angoff method involving PLDs and cut scores were developed by five subject-matter experts. Two test instruments were used: 10 practice and 36 original bilingual Malay-English SJT items. The PLDs and two cut scores to distinguish low, moderate and high employability skills were validly developed, without compromising consequential validity. The findings benefit undergraduates with low employability as they can be trained with current global job readiness skills by the universities, which also forms the practice implication of this study. Another practical implication is academicians can be further encouraged to understand the theoretical framework of establishing standard setting for employability.

Understanding teacher's behavioural intention in teaching science becomes a foundation to improve teacher education programme. Prior to the evaluation of the interrelation between teacher self-efficacy beliefs, teaching motivation, attitudes towards teaching science, and behavioural intention in teaching science, this research examines the reliability and validity of instruments used to measure the constructs. "Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument-Form B" (STEBI-B) was used to measure pre-service science teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. "Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers" (WTMST) was used to measure teaching motivation. "Dimensions of Attitude towards Science" (DAS) was used to measure attitudes towards teaching science whereas the "Behavioural Intention Scale" was used to measure behavioural intention in teaching science among pre-service science teachers. Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modelling approach was used to evaluate the reliability and validity of the instruments. Research findings concluded all instruments are valid and reliable to be used in future research.

The purpose of the study is to have a relook at the ESL reading comprehension assessment system for Malaysian Year Five students. Traditionally, the ESL teachers have been assessing and reporting on their primary year's students by merely giving a composite grade with some vague remarks. This process has been used and is still being employed in spite of the numerous advances and progress that have been made in the realm of education. To gauge the students' reading ability there is a need to take a serious look into the way teachers assess the students. In this ESL reading comprehension assessment system, a set of standardised generic reading comprehension test, a reading matrix and reading performance descriptors were developed. The findings revealed that Year Five respondents at reading performance Band 1, Band 2, Band 3, Band 4 and Band 5 have acquired the literal, reorganization and inferential reading sub-skills to a certain extent. The results obtained were found to be consistent indicating that the ESL reading assessment is reliable and valid to a large extent as revealed by a second administration of the test conducted in a few other selected primary schools. This ESL reading comprehension system can provide information on students' reading ability at both the micro and macro levels. At the micro level, ESL teachers can plan their teaching instructions that tailor to the needs of the students. At the macro level, it can assist the district as well as the state education departments in Malaysia to plan reading programmes for primary school students.

The main purpose of this study was to validate a Malay Language version of a 30-item teacher education program coherence questionnaire. Two different samples of preservice teachers completed the Malay translation of the questionnaire. Exploratory factor analysis (N=220) showed four types of perceived program coherence which had good internal consistency ranging from 0.79 to 0.86: "Opportunity to enact practice," "Opportunity to analyze practice," "Opportunity to connect ideas across courses" and "Coherence between courses and practical experience." The confirmatory factor analysis (N= 234) provided support for a four-factor model. In addition, an analysis of criterion validity of the four types of perceived program coherence also indicated meaningful relationships to teaching efficacy. Our study supports the applicability of the Malaysian teacher education program coherence questionnaire for use among Malaysian preservice teachers. Both theoretical and practical implications are provided for teacher educators and researchers.

Teaching values in modern schools is a new phenomenon. Malaysian national curriculum at both primary and secondary school levels ensures that students develop desirable attitudes and behaviors based on human, religious, and spiritual values. The inculcation of the values is made possible through various subjects and non-academic subjects and students' activities. However, knowledge about values education remains limited because there is no measurement device to assess the extent of values teaching in school. To fill this gap, the present study was designed to develop and examine the psychometric properties of an instrument measuring values teaching schools. Using data from 400 high school students, the study developed and validated a measure called Malaysia School Values Scale (MSVS) tailored to high school students in Malaysia. A robust analysis of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) provides a rigorous analysis of the model power in relation to construct and content validity, confirming the dimension and analyzing the fitness of the data collected in the hypothesized model. This paper provides insight construct and content analysis using the CFA approach to consider the 15 school values constructs. To achieve the intended research objective, the 15 school values were explored. The results provide evidence that the MSVS achieved sound psychometric properties. The overall reliability value of Cronbach's Alpha was acceptable. The CFA results showed that the goodness-of-fit indices for the hypothesized model were as follows: x2 (182) = 627.269, p = 0.00, x2/DF = 3.409, GFI = 0.852; AGFI = 0.814, CFI = 0.92; IFI = 0.921, RMSEA = 0.077. Each of the indices was above the threshold value. Results imply that MSVS is a valid measure to describe the school values among high school students. However, more studies are recommended to further validate the scale.

Value has been identified as an essential aspect towards the quality in mathematics education at various levels of the system, institutional, curriculum, education management, and classroom interactions. However, few studies were focused on values, its development, measurement, and impact in education as compared to other affective aspects such as beliefs, motivation, perceptions, and attitude. In addition, most studies dealt with values developed in Western education setting where the spiritual domain was not considered. This paper detailed the instrument development processes including analysis, design, development, and evaluation phases. Content validity of the 36-item instrument was enhanced by a focus group and panels of experts' reviews. Construct validity was investigated using reliability measures, item analysis, principal analysis of residuals, rating scale functioning, confirmatory factor analysis, and first order factor analysis. The inventory, three sub-constructs, nine dimensions, and the 36 items have high Cronbach alpha values. Confirmatory factor analysis did not fully support the hypothesised conceptual framework with three sub-constructs and nine dimensions. Suggestions on how to further improve the instrument validity were proposed. The instrument which was theoretically based on faith and belief in God, was the pioneer and significant to the future investigations on values development in mathematics education.

Increasing complexity towards harnessing the power of ICT on all levels has created uncertainty about higher educational technological capabilities and adequate strategies to develop e-readiness. In this study, an empirically grounded higher education e-readiness questionnaire in the domain of higher education was developed and validated. Exploratory factor analysis (n = 120) followed by confirmatory factor analysis (n = 336) was done which was presented in two forms; covariance model and the structural model. The covariance model showed that the 5 indicators ("Innovativeness", "Infrastructure", "Collaboration", "Learning flexibility", "Student experience") and assigned 24 items were important e-readiness dimensions from the learners' point of view. The structural models validated the previously extracted factors along with their indicators. As a practical tool, the e-readiness tool could assist institutions towards identifying issues that contribute towards e-readiness thereby formulating strategies accordingly. An example of how it can be used as a practical tool is presented in this paper.

A valid, reliable and practical instrument is needed to evaluate the implementation of the school-based assessment (SBA) system. The aim of this study is to develop and assess the validity and reliability of an instrument to measure the perception of teachers towards the SBA implementation in schools. The instrument is developed based on a conceptual framework developed by Daniel Stufflebeam, which is the CIPP (context, input, process and product) Evaluation Model. The instrument in the form of questionnaire is distributed to a sample of 120 primary and secondary school teachers. The response rate is 80 percent. The content validity is assessed by the experts and the construct validity is measured by Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). The reliability of the instrument is measured using internal consistence reliability, which is measured by alpha coefficient reliability or Cronbach Alpha. The finding of this pilot study shows that the instrument is valid and reliable. Finally, out of 71 items, 68 items are retained.

This research reports the development of an online three-tier diagnostic instrument for pre-university students related to cellular respiration. To date, only few studies have been conducted to identify students' alternative conception in the topic of cellular respiration. One of the contributing factors is due to lack of instrument developed to measure these alternative conceptions. Three-tier tests are used as assessment tools for lecturers to determine students' alternative conceptions related to cellular respiration and their knowledge and understanding about the concepts. The research incorporates both qualitative and quantitative methods. The instrument was developed in five phases: (1) construction of items, (2) pilot study, (3) validation of instrument, (4) transforming the instrument into an online assessment tool, and (5) the administration of the Online Diagnostic Tool (ODiT). The Cellular Respiration ODiT consists of three tiers: answer and reasoning tiers to measure "content knowledge" and "explanatory knowledge" respectively, and a third tier that measures the level of confidence of pre-university students. Analysis of the students' responses demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity of the instrument. The research also shows that both students and lecturers benefit when online diagnostic tests are implemented appropriately.

Purpose: The main purpose of the study was to develop an empirically validated Teacher Leadership Competency Model (TLCM) which would enhance teacher leadership competencies in Malaysian secondary schools. There is currently no established instrument that measures teacher leadership competency, particularly in the Malaysian context. Methodology: Structural equation modeling (SEM) utilizing AMOS Version 22 was employed to develop the model. Exploratory factor analysis was utilized to identify the underlying factors, whereas confirmatory factor analysis was employed to test the construct of the TLCM. The study particularly targeted a total of 928 trained teachers from 58 high-performing secondary schools in Malaysia. It explored their perception of the notion of teacher leadership competencies and their commitment to change their initial role as classroom leaders to teacher leaders in their respective schools. Findings: The Teacher Leadership Competency Model (TLCM) was found to be a fit and reliable model with all fit statistics set well above the threshold level. The Teacher Leadership Competency Scale (TLCS), which comprised 21 items, would also benefit school principals in assessing the effectiveness of teacher leadership and teacher commitment in assuming new leadership roles in school change initiatives. The finding has also encouraged a fresh look at the implementation of teacher leadership programmes aimed at successful change in schools. Significance: This study has pioneered research in the measurement of teacher leadership competency, the first of its kind, in the Malaysian context. Teacher leadership is a critical component in shifting the paradigm of teacher isolation to one of collaboration in the Malaysian school context. The findings of the TLCM will also benefit educational practitioners in designing a Teacher Education Model for Malaysia.

The purpose of this study was twofold, i.e. to examine the extent to which students' self-reported use of digital technology constituted meaningful and interpretable dimensions of the digital citizenship construct, and to test the adequacy of the construct in terms of its reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and measurement equivalence for male and female students. The sample consisted of 391 undergraduates from 15 institutions of higher education in Malaysia. The data were collected using a self-reported 17-item questionnaire measuring university students' digital citizenship behaviours. The results of the study supported and extended the results of previous work on students' behaviors when using digital technology. The study found evidence that students' digital citizenship is a valid and reliable multidimensional construct, and the measurement is gender-invariant. The findings are useful in making evidence-informed decisions in choosing and developing instructional interventions to produce ethical and responsible technology users, and in informing future research in the area.

Self-efficacy has been considered an essential mediator and predictor of individual counseling performance. As there is no existing scale to measure counseling self-efficacy in the counseling domain, the Sources of Middle School Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale was modified in this study. The purpose of this study is to examine the psychometric properties of the Sources of Counseling Self-Efficacy Scale, Malaysia (SCSE-M) in a sample of 541 Malaysian secondary school counselors. In addition, it aims to also examine the invariance between registered and non-registered counselors. The results reveal that the SCSE-M four-factor model (social persuasion, mastery experience, vicarious learning, and physiological and affective state) has good fit and is appropriate in the domain-specific counseling profession. In terms of validity and reliability, SCSE-M reported good internal consistency and support for configural, metric, and scalar invariance among registered and non-registered counselors. The generalizability of the results should be considered as tentative and limited to public secondary schools' counselors who were the sample in this study. More research is needed in the other private, international, primary, and tertiary counseling sectors to determine the appropriateness of the SCSE-M for use in the counseling domain in Malaysia.

Students' attitudes towards statistics have been more often negative due to many factors such as initial perception of the subject, low ability in mathematics and lack of motivation to study statistics. Studies involving SATS-36 included investigation of the different factors in relation to students' attitude towards statistics. Other studies have investigated the structure of SATS-36 and the relationship between the different components of SATS-36. The research investigated the reliability and validity of SATS-36 for a sample of matriculation students. Results showed that while reliability and validity is maintained for the instrument, it is not the case for the sample of respondents.

Evaluation of the quality of Arabic education in Malaysia needs to be conducted on a continuous basis to achieve the objectives of Arabic education. Student Evaluation of Education Quality (SEEQ) was proposed as one of the evaluation instruments of the quality of Arabic education. This study aimed to evaluate the usability of SEEQ in the context of Malaysian education, including its validity and reliability based on the collected local data. In this study, a total of 491 samples from Islamic National Secondary Schools (SMK(A)) throughout Malaysia were involved. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Cronbach's alpha for internal consistency were performed using AMOS and SPSS.A new model of SEEQ (8 constructs and 25 of 31 items were retained after modifications) with good readings off it indices and alpha value was obtained. This study suggests using the new model of SEEQ as the indicator of the quality of Arabic education in Malaysia.

Lack of valid means of measuring explicit and implicit knowledge in acquisition of second language is a concern issue in investigations of explicit and implicit learning. This paper endeavors to validate the use of four tests (i.e., Untimed Judgment Grammatical Test, UJGT; Test of Metalinguistic Knowledge, TMK; Elicited Oral Imitation Test, EOIT; and Time pressured Judgment Grammatical Test, TJGT) from a set of instruments introduced by Ellis (2005) to measure explicit and implicit knowledge of ESL learners. The result of Principal Component Analysis shows the UJGT and TMK loaded on the first factor (i.e., explicit knowledge) and the EOIT and TJGT loaded on the second factor (i.e., implicit knowledge) when a two factor solution was imposed. The study also shows that second language students respond in a different way to ungrammatical and grammatical sentences in the UJGT. Hence, Pearson Product Moment Coefficient tests have been conducted amid the ungrammatical and grammatical sentences in the UJGT and other instruments. The outcome suggests that in the case of UJGT ungrammatical sentences would provide a superior measurement of explicit knowledge.

Military units are principally concerned with training and preparing for operations when they are not deployed on missions. During these periods when they are predominantly stationed in barracks, they are also occupied with a host of administrative and domestic tasks assigned by their higher formation. Despite the varied nature of day-to-day activities, heads of these units or commanders have the challenge of ensuring a suitable organisational climate (referred to as command climate) as this would inevitably contribute towards operational effectiveness.Unlike organisational climate, command climate is impacted by variables peculiar to military units. Existing literature indicates various psychological dimensions of operational effectiveness that includes morale, group cohesion, confidence in leadership and job satisfaction. These variables have to be further verified through a systematic process i.e. scouring existing literature and conducting in-depth interviews with experienced commanders. Underlying theories impacting the various constructs will be identified to provide the necessary grounding. Subsequently,these intangible factors will be empirically measured. This research has its main objective of developing and validating a reliable and easy to use measurement tool, which would eventually enable military unit commanders to evaluate command climate as and when required.Higher formations will also be able to determine the ability of units to perform in the event they are deployed to undertake missions under stressful conditions.