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An essay on parliamentary government and political violence in Europe following World War I is presented. It examines paramilitarism in conflicts in European countries such as Russia, Finland, and Poland, as well as the Ukraine, Finland, and the Baltic states. The essay notes that Ireland experienced both a war of independence and a civil war between 1917 and 1923.

This essay examines a dispute between the French and German anthropological communities in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War. While the debate ostensibly revolved around the ethnological classification of the Prussian population presented in Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages's La race prussienne, this overlays much deeper points of contention, presenting a case study of how commitments to nationalism and internationalism in late nineteenth-century science were not mutually exclusive but could operate in a highly synergistic manner, even during periods of intense international crisis. In the controversy, a group of scholars attempted to reconcile national rivalries with a commitment to scientific universalism and define how anthropological ideas of race and progress related to political developments. The French and German communities retained similar views that anthropology was an international science and that politically defined nationality was separate from scientifically discerned race. Yet they nevertheless regarded their work as strongly affected by processes of national consolidation and employed the language of scientific universalism to accuse their rivals of misusing science for political purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An essay is presented that draws on opinion surveys from the French magazine "Femina" between the years 1901 to 1910 to offer insight on the role of women in French society and the opportunities they had in France during the years comprising the Belle Époque. The magazine's founder and publisher, Pierre Lafitte, gave the publication a progressive tone that has been characterized as feminist and the magazine's editorial board participated in various campaigns for women's rights.

The article discusses realism in the European art world of the 1850s and 1860s. The realist aesthetic challenged academic art traditions of the artist-model transaction and is also evident in the shift of subject matter of paintings from historical narratives to depictions of incidents of everyday life. The author argues that painter Édouard Manet was searching for alternatives to the artificiality of the professional models and began using lay models and models of privileged social status.

Examines the question of how European women and men negotiated the accession of women to social and political rights and the responsibility of representing the body politic at the turn of the twentieth century. Discussion on the musical ceremony called the Festival of the Crowning of the People's Muse; Explanation on how women negotiated commodified urban culture and opportunities to appropriate new subjectivities and resources accessible by performing as the Muse; Demonstration on how age intersected with gender, class, and race in constructions of modern womanhood and national identity.

This article examines the relationship between the consumer and the citizen from the eighteenth century to the present in Europe and the United States. Part I highlights the political narrative underlying the opposition between courtly consumption (absolutism) and the inconspicuous consumption of the middling sorts, and explores early formulations of the relationship between consumption and democracy. Part II looks at the first half of the nineteenth century, defined by the opposition between consumers (coded feminine, and as ‘despised’) and citizens (coded masculine, and as ‘restrained’). Part III goes from the 1860s to the 1930s. American historians have emphasized the positive political agency of consumers in this period, and their contribution to the notion of social citizenship. This article emphasizes the less democratic aspects of consumer politics, and the contributions of anti-liberal movements on the extreme left and right to a stronger tradition of social citizenship in Europe. Part IV takes Lizabeth Cohen's claim that a ‘Consumers' Republic’ was forged in the US in the post-war period, and casts the Marshall Plan and the Cold War as the context that gave rise to an international negotiation over the relationship between consumption and democracy that continues to the present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the limitations of using major wars to explain histories of European international politics and proposes an alternative perspective on modern European politics. It considers two important arguments about war and change in European society that pick out the Congress of Vienna and the Concert system as a decisive event in European and international politics. It analyzes the strategic structure of revolution when democratic republicanism is introduced into a social system composed of dynastic states.

Explores the struggles by European women to gain access to the legal profession, primarily as private attorneys. Arguments of women and supporters; Resistance encountered; Examination of the processes by which women in European countries entered the legal profession.

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The article presents the author's views about the book "The Golden Bough." The book was intended to shed light on the thoughts that compel people to kill in order to prosper. Divine kingship is the principal metaphor through which the author of the book expressed his understanding of the irrationality and violence underlying the surface of Christian ideals of progress in Victorian and Edwardian England. It is argued that divine kingship involves several related issues that include the barbarity of a world religion based on the ethic of love, and indigenous conceptions of power, authority and prosperity that Europeans did not share.