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The aim of this study is to optimize CALL environments as a learning tool rather than a gloss, focusing on the learning of polysemous words which refer to spatial relationship between objects. A lot of research has already been conducted to examine the efficacy of visual glosses while reading L2 texts and has reported that visual glosses can be effective for incidental vocabulary learning. This study, however, discusses the efficacy of visual aids on vocabulary learning, from the following three different standpoints. The first point is that previous studies have not covered the meaning of these words and have concluded the aids become effective regardless of the part of speech of these words. That is, some words are easy to learn, but the others are difficult depending on the part of speech. Paying more attention to the meaning structures is necessary. The second is that previous studies have focused on visual aids in vocabulary learning using CALL in terms of a gloss while reading texts. As CALL environments have been developed, however, glosses are now used not merely as a reference tool, but as a learning tool. Finally, a lot of research on vocabulary learning with multimedia has been conducted in reading activities, although visual aids can be effective in other activities such as listening activities, in which deeper discourse comprehension is required. Taking these standpoints into consideration, we hypothesize that the intentional learning of those words with multimedia-oriented visual aids could enhance not only comprehension of vocabulary meanings but also better comprehension of a script that includes those words. To examine our hypothesis, we will conduct an experimental study with computer-mediated learning material for English prepositions which we developed for this study. The findings of this study can contribute to the better CALL environments, leading to more effective web or mobile-based learning tools. [For the complete volume, see ED574893.]

This small-scale qualitative study aimed at identifying factors and the extent of their influence upon the learning experiences of first year Japanese undergraduate students in a group work oriented oral presentation using English as their second language (ESL). Research findings were obtained from students through their participation in written self-reflection and a semi-structured focus group interview. This study found that informal self- and peer assessment influenced oral presentation learning experiences for participants. In relation to group work, participants identified the main influences of group work on their learning experiences resulting from: learning experiences in connection with other group members and other groups, the value of prior experiences of presenting; and teacher support. Additionally, participants felt that working in a group could provide support and reduced performance pressure; and that observing other student groups was beneficial to individual learning. Appended are: (1) Product Presentation activity--11 x 90 min. classes; (2) Pre-activity One-minute paper; (3) Mid-activity One-minute paper; and (4) Post-activity Focus Group Interview. (Contains 1 table.)

This paper showcases a case study documenting the intended and actual language practices of a Japanese-English bicultural family. The study focuses on a family consisting of a Japanese father, Australian mother, son and daughter living in Japan. The parents were interviewed by questionnaire to determine their intended language practices. The family is trying to follow the one parent one language (OPOL) approach. The family's speech during a dinner conversation was recorded and analyzed to determine their actual language practice. All family members used both languages during the recording session. Incidences of codeswitching are discussed according to purposes summarized from Baker (2006). The family's intended and actual practices are shown to be different. Their language practices including codeswitching and using the weaker language in the household have a positive effect on their children's bilingualism. This paper shows that despite their intentions, the family uses codeswitching to enhance communication with each other. The following are appended: (1) Interview Questions adapted from (Harding & Riley 1999; Sema 2007); and (2) Conversation Transcript.

This paper discusses how to motivate unsuccessful English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) learners in Japanese high schools. The first section examines the current status of teaching ESL to Japanese high school students. The second section focuses on how to motivate unsuccessful ESL learners (employing motivational strategies, creating a comfortable atmosphere, building students' confidence, making students more responsible for their learning, making the materials relevant to the students, teaching students learning strategies, and promoting cooperative learning). The third section offers practical suggestions for classroom application (applying learning styles theory, applying task-based learning, sample task-based learning lesson plan, and using first and second languages in instruction). The paper concludes that the best way to motivate unsuccessful ESL students is to use a variety of motivational strategies, incorporate these strategies into communication activities, and take students' learning styles into consideration. (Contains 18 references.) (SM)

This paper outlines a comprehensive approach to uncovering the process of second language acquisition, entitled Interlanguage Analysis (IA), and defines the features and aims of this analysis. IA regards the transitional linguistic system from the learner's first language (L1) to the target language (TL) as interlanguage (IL). Language acquisition research needs to examine the common and differing elements of L1, TL, and IL as they relate to the learning and communicative strategies employed by learners. Error analysis needs to focus not only on mistakes but successes as well. The goals of IA include: (1) the establishment of a well-knit theory of foreign language acquisition; (2) the elucidation of teaching and learning methods and materials; and (3) the establishment of a data-bank of universal grammar. Contains 10 references. (MDM)

This study investigated whether a self-efficacy course would raise English-as-a-Second-Language learners' English ability by raising their self-efficacy. It also examined the reliability and validity of a self-efficacy questionnaire and English test. Participants were 293 Japanese college freshmen. Researchers developed two versions of an English test (in English) and a self-efficacy questionnaire (in Japanese). The reliability of the self-efficacy pre- and post-questionnaire was calculated using the Cronbach alpha. The English pretest-posttest reliability was calculated using the K-R20. Each of four instructors graded the writing and speaking portions of the English test twice. The speaking interviews were recorded and played back only once during the second grading. Results indicated that differences between the pre-questionnaire and post-questionnaire scores were significant. The results suggested that the self-efficacy questionnaire and English test were reliable and valid, noting that students' self-efficacy and English ability increased over the period of instruction. Eight appendixes include the course objectives, the English test, the Japanese self-efficacy questionnaire, the English translation of the self-efficacy questionnaire, pretest and posttest writing and speaking results, writing and speaking score guides. (Contains 13 references, 9 tables, and 2 figures.) (SM)

This paper explains that change is part of every language, noting that it occurs from both internal manipulation (e.g., youth culture) and external influences (contact with other languages). The paper focuses on external influences as they apply to Japanese and discusses how much external influence, specifically English, is too much. Today, Japan utilizes more than 30,000 English words, many of which have been "Japanized." This migration to English has led to the abandonment of the original Japanese translations, and the characters that accompany them have given way to "Katakana," the Japanese syllabic set for foreign words. This paper examines the impact of English on Japanese, noting the linguistic and social aspects of Japanese. Information comes from observations, interviews, and experiences as a teacher of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) to Japanese students of varying ages. It discusses the following: the linguistics of Japanese; writing systems; variants of speech; dialects of Japanese; sociolinguistics of Japanese; the impact of English on Japan; and how to teach EFL to Japanese people. The paper examines 5 years of fieldwork, offering four case studies of different types of students in different teaching contexts. It concludes with advice for prospective EFL teachers in Japan. (SM)

In Japan, objectives and content of high school language courses are stipulated in the National Curriculum of Japan or The Course of Study. The last major overhaul of this curriculum in language learning occurred in 1989, and it aimed at the enhancement of communicative competence and understanding of international relations. Accordingly, now subjects such as Aural/Oral Communication A, B, and C have been introduced. Aural/Oral Communication A (AOCA), which covers the area of daily conversation, is the subject of this case study. There has been great difficulty in implementing this curriculum, and the results have not been as good as hoped. It is argued that the root of the problem is curriculum implementation and a lack of teachers' ability or willingness to consider the real needs of the learners. The system is too hierarchical and top-down in orientation. This hierarchical system aims at equality and uniformity. The problem is that it runs into the reality of contemporary Japan--diverse students and high schools of varying quality. Teachers need to be freer to modify the curriculum to fit the needs of their students, and they need to be made aware of the potential benefits of deviating from a rigid national curriculum. (Contains 32 references.) (KFT)

Student testing in Japan is not effectively used. In many cases test results are used only for ranking and sorting students into whatever the designated purposes of the tests are. They are not focused on monitoring individual student progress. This is an especially inadequate approach for teaching oral communications courses. This paper proposes a different assessment tool which emphasizes monitoring individual student progress and achievement on a daily basis: the oral portfolio. Part one of this paper explains the present situation in oral language instruction and assessment in Japanese high schools. Part two defines authentic assessment as well as key factors and technical qualities. Part three focuses on key concepts in portfolios that are essential to authentic assessment, and how these processes could be implemented in Japanese high school classrooms. The final part demonstrates how authentic oral portfolio assessment can be incorporated into classroom instruction and provides sample activities. Oral portfolios also help learners become more self-directed and self-starting by encouraging them to take more responsibility for their own learning. Appended are three forms appropriate for handouts: an analytic scoring rubric for formal speaking; formal speaking peer-assessment sheet; and sheet for Self-Assessment of Process. (Contains 14 references.) (KFT)

The purpose of this study was two-fold: (1) to investigate the effects of visual information, background knowledge, and academic reading experience, and (2) to identify the non-native readers' problems in comprehending Japanese academic texts. Sixty-three foreign students studying at universities and graduate schools in Japan participated in this study. Major findings were as follows: the exhibition of charts and text diagrams did not promote reading comprehension; the students' past experiences of academic text reading influenced the score of the reading comprehension test and strategies of activating visual information; and there was not significant correlation between the amount of background knowledge and the score of reading comprehension tests. Moreover, the cluster-analysis of descriptive data seemed reasonable to support that there would be differences of activating visual information between advanced and novice readers. (Contains 13 references.) (Author/AEF)

This paper provides a window into Japanese learners' thoughts about what it is necessary for teachers and learners to do in order to foster Japanese learner autonomy--and why Japanese learners would find this so difficult to do. There are numerous student journal and interview excerpts providing interesting insight to what Japanese learners think about what they should do, what they actually do, and why it is difficult for them to take the more active role that they agree they should. The paper begins by defining its terms--learner autonomy and learner development. It then goes on to discuss learners' political awareness, the issue of learner universality, and the influence of culture on learner autonomy. The study included 46 college students. It is concluded that it will be extremely difficult to make the needed behavior changes. (Contains 33 references.) (KFT)

Higher literacy needs and global communication technologies such as the Internet require that students worldwide develop academic level mastery of international languages. However, while school and university second language programs are frequently able to help students achieve mastery of the basic interpersonal communications skill level of a language, few university second-language programs produce a high level of mastery of the cognitive-academic language processing level. Preliminary studies using WebCT Internet technology have shown how student-initiated interactive second language communication may be used to supplement more traditional approaches, and, in particular, the effectiveness of university-level immersion English as a Second Language (ESL) courses in which students learn academic course content through ESL. In these studies, students actively negotiated the meaning of extensive resources and readings in a second language on asynchronous electronic bulletin boards whenever they were interested. This student-centered approach appears promising, based on results from a detailed discourse analysis of the students' communications on the bulletin boards, as well as from reading comprehension and writing production tests. In addition, extensive formative and summative interviews of the students' attitudes towards reading and discussing course content on the electronic bulletin boards for second-language acquisition yielded positive results. Ongoing research with real-audio and visual modalities is promising. (Contains 18 references.) (KC)

The central concern of this paper is to discover the most effective way to maximize Japanese English-as-a-second-Language (ESL) learners' proficiency levels and communicative competence without compromising fluency and accuracy. The paper searches for the best approach for ESL instruction in Japanese high schools. The educational environment in Japanese high schools is examined, and the problems faced by Japanese teachers of English are considered. Next, the sequence of foreign language instruction is explained, emphasizing the focus on form theory because it is the dominant approach to ESL instruction in Japan, followed by a discussion of strategies that can be used by teachers for dealing with the errors made by students in the classroom. Finally, suggestions are made for how Japanese teachers of English can adapt the focus on form theory in the Japanese high school ESL classroom. It is concluded that good judgment by the ESL teacher is crucial to find the proper balance between form- and meaning-focused instruction. Notes, references, and appendices are included. (Contains 29 references.) (KFT)

This paper suggests that computer assisted language learning (CALL) can and should be used in language education in Japan in more effective ways. It suggests practical ideas for incorporating the use of computers into English language instruction in Japan. Japanese teachers of English have many concerns about the use and efficacy of computers in the classroom. This paper addresses these concerns by making the following points: (1) the use of computers can offer more authentic examples of the English language in use (newspapers, broadcast media) and opportunities for realistic communication (e-mail), both of which can facilitate language learning; (2) using CALL, learners can proceed at their own pace and take more risks; (3) using CALL, teachers can address the different learning styles of their students through multimedia with pictures, sound, movies, and text offering several different ways to deal with the same material to suit various learning styles; (4) networked computers can be tools for communication in which learners can engage in interaction using the target language. The usefulness of computers is investigated in specific ways, focusing on reading, writing, listening, speaking, and integrated skills. In each section, specific activities are suggested and methodological issues are reviewed. Worksheets are included. (Contains 50 references.) (Author/KFT)

This paper describes unique opportunities offered by the Internet for Japanese college students learning to write in English. It focuses on tasks that students were assigned using discussion forums on the Internet. It begins by describing the Web site, which is , looking at software considerations, privacy issues, operating system compatibility, and the forum. It goes on to examine teaching methods (types of classes and method applied); procedures and problems; teaching points (headline reading, subject line reading, and peer writing); and the Intensive English Programme, which involved diary writing. Using Communicative English Language Test data as a measure of student ability, the study examined whether it was possible to predict that students with greater ability would post more frequently or post more lines to the Web site than students with lower ability. Results found no relationship between test scores and frequency of student postings. The paper recommends considering other factors that might be indicative of student motivation (e.g., their grades being based on how often they posted). (SM)

This study investigated the extent to which foreign words have become assimilated into the Japanese lexicon during the decade of the 1990s. Since the 1980s, a number of linguists and educators have argued that the rate of loan word absorption into Japanese has increased dramatically. However, most of the studies are speculative or anecdotal. This study presents clear empirical evidence of a marked increase in the penetration of loan words into the Japanese language. This rapid rate of absorption of primarily English loan words has significant ramifications for foreign language learning in Japan. Researchers used the Japanese Proficiency Test, Level 1, for the years 1990, 1992, 1994, 1996, and 1998 as the data source. They made the assumption that the test was a conservative estimate of the degree to which foreign loan words have penetrated the Japanese language. Data analysis indicated that rather than moving towards a variety of English, the pattern of loan word absorption in Japan appears to be moving towards an appropriation of English loan words into Japanese, also called the katakanization of English. Evidence of this can be seen in the rapid increase in the number of loan words on the test. (SM)

A researcher undertook a study of her own second language learning progress, focusing on development of pragmatic competence in Japanese and the relationship between language and social identity while living and working in Japan. The study addressed three areas: the formal instructional context of studying Japanese in Japan; the influence of the social context; and the learner's social and cultural identity in relation to efforts to increase pragmatic ability in Japanese. Data were gathered in a diary on experiences, thoughts, and insights concerning the three areas of study; in an oral proficiency interview conducted at the beginning of the project; and in discussions with other non-Japanese and Japanese individuals. With regard to the educational context for learning Japanese, findings concerning the teacher and concerning group vs. individual lessons are discussed. The influence of social context on pragmatic development is then examined in out-of-class encounters, noting the difficulty of finding "safe" contexts in which to practice language skills. In discussing the role of the learner's social and cultural identity in pragmatic development, focus is on the subjectivity involved in constructing those identities in this context. Contains 10 references. (MSE)

A study in Japan investigated second language skill loss and maintenance in three groups of English-as-a-Second-Language learners: (1) ninth graders studying basic vocabulary and sentence structures (true beginners); (2) students in the lowest level English class at a technical college, but with some English language skills (false beginners); and (3) successful students in the highest level English class at the college (successful learners). The research explored in what areas false beginners encountered backsliding, in which areas false beginners achieved better than true beginners, and what the main problems of false beginners were. Data were gathered using a standardized test of written and spoken (read-aloud) English, and a list of both regular and irregular English words, read aloud. Results indicate that the false beginners' backsliding occurred in comprehension, in which their skill level was about equivalent to that of true beginners. False beginners could read passages aloud better than true beginners, and the main difficulty for false beginners was in recoding and decoding of English words. Contains 17 references. (MSE)

Classroom use of role-playing in English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) instruction in Japan is described. The purpose is to improve students' verbal and nonverbal communication skills and to link and use previously built schema, in both structured and improvised situations. Units designed around a short listening passage, a short reading passage, and viewing of an authentic videotaped segment are explained. For the listening passage, students hear a 45-second dialogue between three people, which includes introducing an individual and some small talk. After listening, the class discusses the interaction, students practice the dialogue and nonverbal behavior in small groups, then personalize it or improvise a similar situation. The reading role play begins with assignment of a 10-12 page section of a novel, then proceeds to discussion, re-creation of scenes, vocabulary practice, role plays, and finally, a question-and-answer session with observers. Brief videotape recordings of real situations, such as a job interview, are used in a similar way as the basis for structured class and small-group activities. For most students, moving from less to more structured role-playing allows students to proceed at their own pace while building confidence. (MSE)

This study investigated learning styles and learning strategies among Japanese university students whose majors are directly related to English. Data were gathered in a survey of 365 students in English literature, language, or linguistics courses at two universities. The survey included questions about study outside class time, study using materials other than those specifically for class, use of a personalized approach to studying, self-monitoring of target language use, confidence in using the target language, and motivations for taking the English course. Respondents were also asked to assign attributes to each of four learning styles (heart, head, hands, free), indicate which they considered their own style to be, and assess the importance to their own learning of 16 general learning behaviors. Results indicate: (1) these students did not show attributes of the idealized good language learner, suggesting lack of personal involvement in the learning process; (2) students' ability to "construct" a four-group learning styles model was limited, suggesting limited understanding of the learning style concept; and (3) students' accuracy in assessing their own learning style was weak. The questionnaire used in the survey, in both English and Japanese, is appended. Contains 18 references. (MSE)

Two models and techniques for teaching learning strategies to second language learners, particularly in the Asian cultural and educational context, are presented. The models are the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) and the Problem-Solving Process Model. An introductory section gives background information on learning strategies theory and describes each model. The second section provides both theoretical and practical information for implementing learning strategies instruction with the Problem-Solving Process Model. This includes a definition of metacognitive processes, introduction to the use of language learning strategies, instructional procedures, notes on scaffolding independent learning, and a sample think-aloud protocol demonstrating the model's use. The third section explores the utility and implementation of learning strategies instruction in Asian classrooms, and includes a description of learning strategies instruction in one university course in Japan, sample worksheets for a lesson, a brief discussion of the model's use to synthesize cooperation and autonomy in classroom learning, and notes on developing a learning strategies lesson. Several worksheets are included. Contains 23 references. (MSE)

Teacher-centered presentation is generally considered the only way of teaching in large classes, whereas a learner-centered communicative approach is not considered feasible. This applies even more to language teaching, where the difference between the native speaker's knowledge and the students' command of the language hinder communication. In teaching German as a second foreign language in Japan, new approaches have been used successfully. The notion behind them is to use the students' didactic competence by having them work in groups of four throughout the class. Instructors can apply available instructional materials to facilitate these groups. Students can be directed to use a wide variety of methods enabling them to gain active understand of the new language. A combination of group evaluation, homework check, and written testing provides sufficient basis for individual evaluation of students' ability and progress. (Author/MSE)

A study investigated how asking students to evaluate a poem-reading task stimulated their autonomy as learners. Subjects were 51 Japanese university students of English. During one 90-minute class period, students were given a brief poem with pre-reading, reading, and post-reading tasks. The poem, entitled "40-Love," had ambiguous references to both love and tennis. Pre-reading tasks included identifying their feelings in anticipation of reading a poem, telling what they think poems are usually about, and identifying their feelings about poetry in English. Tasks during reading included answering questions about the poem's content, choosing an alternative title, and responding to questions about non-literal content and message, and what happens after the period of the poem. Post-reading tasks inquired about enjoyment of the poem and perceptions of the tasks, and invited students to make up an original question about the poem as if they were teaching others. It was found that a generally negative attitude toward poetry was replaced by a more positive one, despite a general perception that poetry is difficult, unclear in meaning, and more difficult than prose reading. Students also showed an eagerness to go beyond the level of the assigned task. (MSE)