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The increase in the use of refined food, which is rich in fructose, is of particular concern in children and adolescents, since the total caloric intake and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome are increasing continuously in these populations. Nevertheless, the effects of high fructose diet have been mostly investigated in adults, by focusing on the effect of a long-term fructose intake. Notably, some reports evidenced that even short-term fructose intake exerts detrimental effects on metabolism. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the metabolic changes induced by the fructose-rich diet in rats of different age, i.e., young (30 days old) and adult (90 days old) rats. The fructose-rich diet increased whole body lipid content in adult, but not in young rats. The analysis of liver markers of inflammation suggests that different mechanisms depending on the age might be activated after the fructose-rich diet. In fact, a pro-inflammatory gene-expression analysis showed just a minor activation of macrophages in young rats compared to adult rats, while other markers of low-grade metabolic inflammation (TNF-alpha, myeloperoxidase, lipocalin, haptoglobin) significantly increased. Inflammation was associated with oxidative damage to hepatic lipids in young and adult rats, while increased levels of hepatic nitrotyrosine and ceramides were detected only in young rats. Interestingly, fructose-induced hepatic insulin resistance was evident in young but not in adult rats, while whole body insulin sensitivity decreased both in fructose-fed young and adult rats. Taken together, the present data indicate that young rats do not increase their body lipids but are exposed to metabolic perturbations, such as hepatic insulin resistance and hepatic oxidative stress, in line with the finding that increased fructose intake may be an important predictor of metabolic risk in young people, independently of weight status. These results indicate the need of corrective nutritional interventions for young people and adults as well for the prevention of fructose-induced metabolic alterations.

The recovery of body weight after a period of caloric restriction is accompanied by an enhanced efficiency of fat deposition and hyperinsulinemia—which are exacerbated by isocaloric refeeding on a high fat diet rich in saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids (SFA-MUFA), and poor in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and associated with a blunting of de novo lipogenesis in adipose tissue and liver. As high fat diets rich in PUFA have been shown to limit the excess fat deposition and improve glucose homeostasis, we investigated here the extent to which de novo lipogenesis in liver and adipose tissues (white and brown), as well as hepatic oxidative stress, are influenced by refeeding on diets rich in PUFA.Design: In rats calorically restricted for 14 days and refed for 14 days on isocaloric amounts of a high fat diet rich in lard (i.e., high SFA- MUFA) or in safflower and linseed oils (rich in PUFA), we investigated energy balance, body composition, glycemic profile, and the regulation of fatty acid synthase (rate- limiting enzyme of de novo lipogenesis) in liver, white and brown adipose tissue. We also evaluated oxidative stress in liver and skeletal muscle and markers of hepatic inflammation.Results: Rats refed the PUFA diet gained less lipids and more proteins compared to rats refed SFA-MUFA diet and showed lower amount of visceral and epididymal white adipose tissue, but increased depots of interscapular brown adipose tissue, with higher expression of the uncoupling protein 1. A significant increase in non- protein respiratory quotient and carbohydrate utilization was found in rats refed PUFA diet. Rats refed PUFA diet showed improved glucose homeostasis, as well as lower triglycerides and cholesterol levels. Fatty acid synthase activity was significantly higher in liver, white and brown adipose tissue, while lipid peroxidation and the degree of inflammation in the liver were significantly lower, in rats refed PUFA diet.Conclusions: When considering the composition of high fat diets for nutritional rehabilitation, the inclusion of PUFA could be useful for improving protein deposition and maintaining glucose homeostasis, while limiting lipid storage in adipose tissue and oxidative stress and inflammation in the liver.

Mitochondria are the main cellular sites devoted to ATP production and lipid oxidation. Therefore, the mitochondrial dysfunction could be an important determinant of cellular fate of circulating lipids, that accumulate in the cytoplasm, if they are not oxidized. The ectopic fat accumulation is associated with the development of insulin resistance, and a link between mitochondrial dysfunction and insulin resistance has been proposed.Recent data on the possible link existing between mitochondrial dysfunction in the liver and diet induced obesity will be summarized, focusing on the three factors that affect the mitochondrial oxidation of metabolic fuels, i.e. organelle number, organelle activity, and energetic efficiency of the mitochondrial machinery in synthesizing ATP. Search in PubMed relevant articles from 2003 to 2014 was conducted, by using query “liver mitochondria and obesity” “hepatic mitochondria and obesity” “liver mitochondria and high fat diet” and “hepatic mitochondria and high fat diet” and including related articles by the same groups.Several works, by using different physiological approaches, have dealt with alteration in mitochondrial function in obesity and diabetes. Most results show that hepatic mitochondrial function is impaired in models of obesity and insulin resistance induced by high-fat or highfructose feeding.Since mitochondria are the main producers of both cellular energy and free radicals, dysfunctional mitochondria could play an important role in the development of insulin resistance and ectopic fat storage in the liver, thus supporting the emerging idea that mitochondrial dysfunction is closely related to the development of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.

An accelerated rate of fat recovery (catch-up fat) and insulin resistance are characteristic features of weight recovery after caloric restriction, with implications for the pathophysiology of catch-up growth and weight fluctuations. Using a previously described rat model of weight recovery in which catch-up fat and skeletal muscle insulin resistance have been linked to suppressed thermogenesis per se, we investigated alterations in mitochondrial energetics and oxidative stress in subsarcolemmal (SS) and intermyofibrillar (IMF) skeletal muscle mitochondria. After 2 weeks of semistarvation followed by 1 week of refeeding, the refed rats show persistent and selective reductions in SS mitochondrial mass (assessed from citrate synthase activity in tissue homogenate and isolated mitochondria) and oxidative capacity. Furthermore, the refed rats show, in both SS and IMF muscle mitochondria, a lower aconitase activity (whose inactivation is an index of increased reactive oxygen species [ROS]), associated with higher superoxide dismutase activity and increased proton leak. Taken together, these studies suggest that diminished skeletal muscle mitochondrial mass and function, specifically in the SS mitochondrial compartment, contribute to the high metabolic efficiency for catch-up fat after caloric restriction and underscore a potential link between diminished skeletal muscle SS mitochondrial energetics, increased ROS concentration, and insulin resistance during catch-up fat.

Insulin resistance, "a relative impairment in the ability of insulin to exert its effects on glucose, protein and lipid metabolism in target tissues," has many detrimental effects on metabolism and is strongly correlated to deposition of lipids in non-adipose tissues. Mitochondria are the main cellular sites devoted to ATP production and fatty acid oxidation. Therefore, a role for mitochondrial dysfunction in the onset of skeletal muscle insulin resistance has been proposed and many studies have dealt with possible alteration in mitochondrial function in obesity and diabetes, both in humans and animal models. Data reporting evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction in type two diabetes mellitus are numerous, even though the issue that this reduced mitochondrial function is causal in the development of the disease is not yet solved, also because a variety of parameters have been used in the studies carried out on this subject. By assessing the alterations in mitochondrial efficiency as well as the impact of this parameter on metabolic homeostasis of skeletal muscle cells, we have obtained results that allow us to suggest that an increase in mitochondrial efficiency precedes and therefore can contribute to the development of high-fat-induced insulin resistance in skeletal muscle.

To study the effect of isoenergetic administration to adult rats of high-fat or high-fat--high-fructose diet for 2 weeks on skeletal muscle mitochondrial energetic.Body and skeletal muscle composition, energy balance, plasma lipid profile and glucose tolerance were measured, together with mitochondrial functionality, oxidative stress and antioxidant defense.Rats fed high-fat--high-fructose diet exhibited significantly higher plasma triglycerides and non-esterified fatty acids, together with significantly higher plasma glucose and insulin response to glucose load. Skeletal muscle triglycerides and ceramide were significantly higher in rats fed high-fat--high-fructose diet. Skeletal muscle mitochondrial energetic efficiency and uncoupling protein 3 content were significantly higher, while adenine nucleotide translocase content was significantly lower, in rats fed high-fat or high-fat--high-fructose diet.The results suggest that a high-fat--high-fructose diet even without hyperphagia is able to increase lipid flow to skeletal muscle and mitochondrial energetic efficiency, with two detrimental effects: (a) energy sparing that contributes to the early onset of obesity and (b) reduced oxidation of fatty acids and lipid accumulation in skeletal muscle, which could generate insulin resistance.

To explore the effect of a fructose-rich diet on morphological and functional changes in white adipose tissue (WAT) that could contribute to the development of insulin resistance. Adult sedentary rats were fed a fructose-rich diet for 8 weeks. Glucose tolerance test was carried out together with measurement of plasma triglycerides, non-esterified fatty acids and lipid peroxidation. In subcutaneous abdominal and intra-abdominal WAT, number and size of adipocytes together with cellular insulin sensitivity and lipolytic activity were assessed. Rats fed a fructose-rich diet exhibited a significant increase in plasma insulin, triglycerides, non-esterified fatty acids and lipid peroxidation, together with significantly increased body lipids and epididymal and mesenteric WAT, compared to controls. Mean adipocyte volume in subcutaneous abdominal WAT was significantly lower, while mean adipocyte volume in intra-abdominal WAT was significantly higher, in rats fed a fructose-rich diet compared to controls. A significant increase in larger adipocytes and a significant decrease in smaller adipocytes were found in intra-abdominal WAT in rats fed a fructose-rich diet compared to controls. Insulin’s ability to inhibit lipolysis was blunted in subcutaneous abdominal and intra-abdominal adipocytes from fructose-fed rats. Accordingly, lower p-Akt/Akt ratio was found in WAT in rats fed a fructose-rich diet compared to controls. Long-term consumption of high levels of fructose elicits remarkable morphological and functional modifications, particularly in intra-abdominal WAT, that are highly predictive of obesity and insulin resistance and that contribute to the worsening of metabolic alterations peculiar in a fructose-rich, hypolipidic diet.

To assess hepatic de novo lipogenesis and mitochondrial energetics as well as whole-body energy homeostasis in sedentary rats fed a fructose-rich diet. Male rats of 90 days of age were fed a high-fructose or control diet for 8 weeks. Body composition, energy balance, oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, non-protein respiratory quotient, de novo lipogenesis and insulin resistance were measured. Determination of specific activity of hepatic enzymes of de novo lipogenesis, mitochondrial mass, oxidative capacity and degree of coupling, together with parameters of oxidative stress and antioxidant defence, was also carried out. Body energy and lipid content as well as plasma insulin and non-esterified fatty acids were significantly higher in fructose-fed than in control rats. Significantly higher rates of net de novo lipogenesis and activities of hepatic lipogenic enzymes fatty acid synthase and stearoyl CoA desaturase-1 were found in fructose-fed rats compared to controls. Mitochondrial protein mass and degree of coupling were significantly higher in fructose-fed rats compared to controls. Hepatic mitochondria showed oxidative damage, both in the lipid and in the protein component, together with decreased activity of antioxidant defence. Liver mitochondrial compartment is highly affected by fructose feeding. The increased mitochondrial efficiency allows liver cells to burn less substrates to produce ATP for de novo lipogenesis and gluconeogenesis. In addition, increased lipogenesis gives rise to whole body and ectopic lipid deposition, and higher mitochondrial coupling causes mitochondrial oxidative stress.

In the present study, the effect of long-term fructose feeding on skeletal muscle mitochondrial energetics was investigated. Measurements in isolated tissue were coupled with the determination of whole-body energy expenditure and insulin sensitivity. A significant increase in plasma NEFA, as well as in skeletal muscle TAG and ceramide, was found in fructose-fed rats compared with the controls, together with a significantly higher plasma insulin response to a glucose load, while no significant variation in plasma glucose levels was found. Significantly lower RMR values were found in fructose-fed rats starting from week 4 of the dietary treatment. Skeletal muscle mitochondrial mass and degree of coupling were found to be significantly higher in fructose-fed rats compared with the controls. Significantly higher lipid peroxidation was found in fructose-fed rats, together with a significant decrease in superoxide dismutase activity. Phosphorylated Akt levels normalised to plasma insulin levels were significantly lower in fructose-fed rats compared with the controls. In conclusion, a fructose-rich diet has a deep impact on a metabolically relevant tissue such as skeletal muscle. In this tissue, the consequences of high fructose feeding are altered glucose tolerance, elevated mitochondrial biogenesis and increased mitochondrial coupling. This latter modification could have a detrimental metabolic effect by causing oxidative stress and energy sparing that contribute to the high metabolic efficiency of fructose-fed rats.

Objective: To investigate whether changes in body energy balance induced by long-term high-fat feeding in adult rats could be associated with modifications in energetic behaviour and oxidative stress of skeletal muscle subsarcolemmal (SS) and intermyofibrillar (IMF) mitochondrial populations.Design: Adult rats were fed low-fat or high-fat diet for 7 weeks.Measurements: Body energy balance and composition analysis together with plasma insulin and glucose level determination in the whole animal. Oxidative capacity, basal and induced proton leaks as well as aconitase and superoxide dismutase activities in SS and IMF mitochondria from skeletal muscle.Results: High-fat fed rats exhibit increased body lipid content, as well as hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycaemia and higher plasma non-esterified fatty acids. In addition, SS mitochondria display lower respiratory capacity and a different behaviour of SS and IMF mitochondria is found in the prevention from oxidative damage.Conclusions: A deleterious consequence of decreased oxidative capacity in SS mitochondria from rats fed high-fat diet would be a reduced utilization of energy substrates, especially fatty acids, which may lead to intracellular triglyceride accumulation, lipotoxicity and insulin resistance development. Our results thus reveal a possible role for SS mitochondria in the impairment of glucose homeostasis induced by high-fat diet.

The transition from young to adult age is associated with decreased insulin sensitivity. To investigate whether changes in skeletal muscle mitochondrial function could be involved in the development of insulin resistance, we measured the oxidative capacity and energetic efficiency of subsarcolemmal and intermyofibrillar mitochondria isolated from the skeletal muscle of 60- and 180-day-old rats. Mitochondrial efficiency was tested by measuring the degree of thermodynamic coupling and optimal thermodynamic efficiency, as well as mitochondrial proton leak, which was determined in both the absence (basal) and the presence (fatty acid induced) of palmitate. Serum glucose, insulin, and HOMA index were also measured. The results show that in adult rats, concomitant with increased HOMA index, skeletal muscle mitochondria display higher respiratory capacity and energy efficiency. In fact, thermodynamic coupling and optimal thermodynamic efficiency significantly increased and fatty acid-induced proton leak was significantly lower in the skeletal muscle mitochondria from adult than in younger rats. A deleterious consequence of increased mitochondrial efficiency would be a reduced utilization of energy substrates, especially fatty acids, leading to intracellular triglyceride accumulation and lipotoxicity, thus contributing to the onset of skeletal muscle insulin resistance.

Catch-up growth is a risk factor for later obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. We show here that after growth arrest by semistarvation, rats refed the same amount of a low-fat diet as controls show 1) lower energy expenditure due to diminished thermogenesis that favors accelerated fat deposition or catch-up fat and 2) normal glucose tolerance but higher plasma insulin after a glucose load at a time point when their body fat and plasma free fatty acids (FFAs) have not exceeded those of controls. Isocaloric refeeding on a high-fat diet resulted in even lower energy expenditure and thermogenesis and increased fat deposition and led to even higher plasma insulin and elevated plasma glucose after a glucose load. Stepwise regression analysis showed that plasma insulin and insulin-to-glucose ratio after the glucose load are predicted by variations in efficiency of energy use (i.e., in thermogenesis) rather than by the absolute amount of body fat or plasma FFAs. These studies suggest that suppression of thermogenesis per se may have a primary role in the development of hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance during catch-up growth and underscore a role for suppressed thermogenesis directed specifically at catch-up fat in the link between catch-up growth and chronic metabolic diseases.