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The purpose of the article is to consider the practical aspects of the structural transformation of economy. Over the past few decades, absolutely all national economies have undergone structural changes, regardless of their size, economic system and all other political or economic differences. The transformation of structures was associated with many factors, including institutional changes, technological changes, the widespread introduction of the results of scientific and technological progress, globalization and integration processes. At the same time, it should be noted that not all structural changes had a positive effect for all countries, even though the changes had almost the same trend of growth in the share of the service sector, a decrease in the share of agriculture and manufacturing. This article is an attempt to systematize the main trends and consequences of structural transformations in the world. The authors put forward the hypothesis that the world economy tends to “servicization” and deindustrialization, which has dialectical significance for the world economy. To assess the structural changes, we analyzed the data of the World Bank to study the dynamics of changes in the sectoral structure of the countries of the world in the period from 1990 to 2019. A very great influence on these processes was exerted by globalization, which through its mechanisms made possible a rapid change in industry proportions not only in the developed world, but also in developing countries, while forming a global trend of “servicization” of the economy. The authors tried to conduct a comparative analysis of the impact of each economic sector on GDP using a regression model based on panel data from more than 180 countries of the world presented by the World Bank.

The transition from a traditional, constant returns technology to modern, increasing returns methods of production in manufacturing not only widens the scale of production but more crucially, it enhances product quality. Such a quality improvement consists mainly in a much higher level of transportability. The fact that products become “lighter” and easier to carry opens foreign markets to manufacturers thereby supporting larger scales of production. We model this situation through a one-stage game where firms distributed across two countries select technologies and fob mill prices. Contrasting with the Big Push approach, such a game is never a coordination game. In addition to cases where all firms adopt either modern or traditional technologies, the standard outcome is an asymmetric situation, where the modern firms in a country eliminate traditional units in the other country. Starting from a situation where all productive activity is traditional, deindustrialization can be viewed as a situation where firms in a country switch to more modern technologies while industrial units in the other country are unable to participate in this movement. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

There is a growing empirical evidence of premature deindustrialization in developing countries wherein the share of manufacturing in GDP and employment declined at a much lower level of per capita income as compared to the trend observed in developed countries. This study examined the manufacturing performance of India, which has been persistent with industrialization as its catch-up strategy. While the study finds no evidence of deindustrialization in the conventional sense, it presents compelling evidence in terms of wage share in value added and wage rate. Therefore, the study argues that a realistic analysis of deindustrialization should consider the quality of employment, wage share and wage rate along with employment share and GDP share. The study attributes deindustrialization in India as an outcome of its strategy to build international competitiveness based on price/wage cost advantage and the failure to build a vibrant learning, innovation and competence building system. Resumo Existe crescente evidência empírica de desindustrialização prematura nos países em desenvolvimento, onde a participação do emprego industrial no PIB diminuiu em um nível muito mais baixo de renda per capita em comparação com os países desenvolvidos. Este estudo examinou o desempenho da indústria da Índia, que tem persistido com a industrialização como estratégia de catch-up. Embora o estudo não encontre evidências de desindustrialização no sentido convencional, ele apresenta evidências convincentes em termos da qualidade do emprego gerado e da sua participação no PIB. Portanto, o estudo argumenta que uma análise realista da desindustrialização deve considerar a qualidade do emprego, a participação e a taxa dos salários, juntamente com a parcela do emprego e do PIB. O estudo atribui a desindustrialização na Índia como resultado da estratégia de ganhar competitividade internacional via vantagens de preço / custo de salário e o fracasso em construir um sistema vibrante de aprendizagem, inovação e construção de competências.

Adam Smith finalised his magnum opus An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations between 1773 (Boston Tea Party) and 1776 (Declaration of Independence), and in its final paragraph Britain should “endeavour to accommodate her future views and designs to the real mediocrity of her circumstances”. The Wealth of Nations was “aimed to influence British MPs [Members of Parliament] to support a peaceful resolution to the American colonies’ War of Independence”, A. Smith “urged legislators to awaken from the “golden dream” of empire and avoid “a long, expensive and ruinous war”“, and “rejection of the protectionist Corn Laws in favour of opening up to the world economy marked the start of an era of globalization which contributed to Britain’s prosperity”, as Yueh (2019, p. 16f) puts it. Over the years, industrialization brought about by the Industrial Revolution has been challenged by deindustrialization, globalization by deglobalization. So with the “Brexit issue” at stake, what has been the “Brexitologic of Competitiveness”? In an earlier relevant series of analyses published by Čiderová et al. between 2012-2014 our focus was on the Global Competitiveness Index (alias the GCI by the World Economic Forum) in a spectrum of territorial and temporal perspectives related to the European Union. Now, in this follow-up comparative study zooming out to globalization and zooming in to competitiveness, our focus is streamlined to the “openended Brexit issue” on the background of updates of the GCI (alias GCI 4.0) and the KOF Globalisation Index (the latter by ETH Zürich).

The article is focused on the evolution of geopolitical arrangements that had initially materialized in the concluding quarter of the twentieth century and had given birth to the contemporary world politics paradigm including the growing role of Russia. The present author maintains that the very process of History is objective (i.e. independent of political establishment’s likes and dislikes) and continuous. This point is argued by appeal to various academic sources, among them the works of Russian and foreign historians, economists, philosophers, political scientists and futurologists. The dismemberment of the U.S.S.R. and collapse of bipolar world suspended, for a short while only, the developments at the sunset of the twentieth century. “Truncated” globalization resulted in “reactive” accumulation of controversies both between the North Atlantic “supercivilization” and the “rest” and within societies that emerged victorious after the cold war. The new vulnerabilities consisted of: deindustrialization as a sideeffect of globalization, “orientalization” of western societies as part and parcel of massive migration inflows from the South, political and economic decline encouraged by disappearance of powerful “counter­centre” embodied by the Soviet Union, waning of economically active population under existent demographic trends throughout the West, etc. Instrumental of cold war revision have also been: emergence of radical antiWest megaprojects like the “Islamic State”, gaining strength by the erstwhile “new in fluentials” as well as revival of Russia as an omnipotent world power. Nowadays, Pax Americana has become inefficient to be substituted by a new and workable global consensus on universal collective security system that meets the basic requirements of contemporary multipolar world.

The phenomenon of deindustrialization, as well as the vertiginous changes dependent on financial capital, produced new trends in the models of organization and production of western cities such as Bilbao. The socio-spatial organization and structuring of the ‘new city’ begins to be a topic of great importance. It is in this sense that the concepts of public and urban space take on greater theoretical relevance. The results obtained through the application of the theory in the case of Bilbao, follow global urban development tendencies. Spatial planning fulfils the strategic functions of a system that dominates urban processes at their convenience. There is a tendency to build aseptic spaces that are closer to the interests of capital than of citizens. El fenómeno de la desindustrialización, así como los cambios vertiginosos dependientes del capital financiero, produjeron nuevas tendencias en los modelos de organización y producción de ciudades occidentales como Bilbao. La organización socioespacial y la estructuración de la ‘nueva ciudad’ comienza a ser un tema de gran importancia. Es en este sentido que los conceptos de espacio público y urbano adquieren mayor relevancia teórica. Los resultados obtenidos mediante la aplicación de la teoría en el caso de Bilbao, siguen las tendencias globales de desarrollo urbano. La planificación espacial cumple las funciones estratégicas de un sistema que domina los procesos urbanos a su conveniencia. Existe una tendencia a construir espacios asépticos que estén más cerca de los intereses del capital que de los ciudadanos.

Resumo O presente artigo aborda aspectos econômicos relevantes do aglomerado urbano que constitui a Macrometrópole Paulista (MMP). Primeiramente, identificamos as principais dinâmicas associadas à globalização e as suas manifestações em São Paulo. Em seguida, discutimos o acidentado percurso do desenvolvimento brasileiro nas últimas décadas, com ênfase nas pressões que pesam sobre a indústria nacional, o que significa caracterizar o contexto mais geral no qual a MMP está inscrita. Posteriormente, situamos a MMP na trajetória recente da economia brasileira e analisamos o seu desempenho industrial com os decorrentes impactos territoriais. Concluímos avaliando a economia paulista em face dos desafios contemporâneos, salientando o papel do Estado nacional na implementação de políticas regionais capazes de estimular um desenvolvimento mais equilibrado no conjunto do território do País.

Introduction. The article deals with problems and consequences of the Ukrainian economy deindustrialization under the neoliberal paradigm dominance in government's economic policy. The problems of deindustrialization in transition economies during the period of postindustrial transformation in developed countries and the neoliberal economic thought dominance has so far been overlooked. The subject-matter of the study is structural shifts caused by deindustrialization and diversification of the economy. The methodological principles of research involve joint application of a set of well-known common scientific methods as well as special research methods in economics, such as retrospective analysis method to investigate the origin of modern neoliberal economic doctrines. Aim and tasks. The purpose of the article is to distinguish the fundamental differences in structural changes in the economy of Ukraine and developed countries and to identify key areas for restructuring the domestic economy on the basis of modernization and reindustrialization policy. Results. The fundamental differences between dramatic reduction of the industrial sector share in the Ukrainian economy and economy diversification with a relative decrease in the share of industry that occurs in mature economic systems under transition to the postindustrial stage of development are revealed. It’s proved that formal signs of a transition to a postindustrial society may reflect diametrically opposed trends of economic development. A critical analysis of the theoretical postulates of economic thought that underlies leading international organizations’ cooperation with individual countries is conducted. It’s argued that neoliberal economic paradigm relies on abstract, sterile, and unfeasible hypotheses based on ideology, not the experience of successful structural transformations. Key areas of Ukraine's economic policy transformation include a set of tools of budget, infrastructure, tax, customs and foreign trade policies to ensure structural changes in output and export. It’s argued that such measures, as introducing a local component criterion in public procurements, free connection of industrial objects to engineering networks, tax incentives for industrial park residents, barriers to raw materials exports, revision of Ukraine’s obligations under WTO, launching of an export-credit agency, deploying a network of official trade missions in key partner countries, etc., will trigger reindustrialization of Ukrainian economy. Conclusions. Implementation of a full-fledged industrial policy in developing countries is hampered by the rule of neo-liberal economic ideology, which denies the possibility of effective state governance of structural changes in the national economy. The article puts forward a critical view on the mainstream economic ideology and discusses its destructive impact on the Ukrainian economy that is worth to be introduced in masters’ graduation programs in economics. Implementation of author’s recommendations on reforming governmental economic and industrial policy is a basis for launching reindustrialization processes in the Ukrainian economy.

Contrary to the notion of a natural tendency in deindustrialization, this paper, performing a cross-country long-term analysis, documents the existence of a variety of patterns of deindustrialization. Looking at industrial sectors and their technological characteristics, categorised on the ground of the Pavitt (1984) taxonomy, we do find a markedly uneven process of deindustrialization with Science Based and Specialised Suppliers not presenting any inverted U-shaped pattern, neither in employment nor in value added. The heterogeneity holds both for the four Pavitt aggregates and under further disaggregation at industry level. We then study whether the uneven sectoral composition had an impact on the timing of deindustrialization. Overall, our analysis supports the notion that “microchips” are not “potato chips” in their influence on the patterns of long-term economic development of different countries. Moreover, during the phase of globalization the probability for low-income countries to be stuck to produce “potato chips” has increased and that of transition toward the production of “microchips” has been reducing.

El debate sobre los efectos socio-residenciales de la globalización y la desindustrialización en las grandes ciudades ha marcado desde los años 90 la producción científica en torno a la estructuración socio-residencial urbana. Esta investigación parte del modelo teórico Quartered City, surgido en ese debate, para estudiar la evolución de las principales metrópolis españolas. Los objetivos son constatar si la estructura socio-residencial se está fragmentando y polarizando cada vez más y si estos procesos están asociados a factores vinculados con la desindustrialización y la globalización. En la misma línea, también se analiza la incidencia de otros factores demográficos y geográficos y del impacto de la crisis. Los resultados avalan la capacidad explicativa de este modelo teórico en el contexto español, confirmando un aumento de la fragmentación urbana y de la polarización socio-residencial en la mayoría de metrópolis estudiadas.

During the 1990s, a series of institutional transformations took place that strongly affected the national productive structure, as well as its agents. Among the main effects of the new openness and liberalization policies are: the loss of relevance of the manufacturing sector in the economy, the abandonment of the complex system of tariffs and subsidies and the accelerated growth of foreign direct investment. How have these transformations impacted the structure of national industrial business groups? This is the central question that guides the article.The paper takes two samples from large industrial business groups in the late 1980s and in 2015, comparing their evolution in both benchmark years. In the construction of both samples, information was taken from the Central Bank of Uruguay, the Montevideo Stock Exchange, Official Newspaper and press sources, in addition to previous work. The evidence presented shows that aspects such as size, level of diversification and the form of family control have not varied much in each period. In this sense, the groups have remained stable around certain attributes. On the other hand, there are notable variations in the formation of alliances, the sector distribution of the business portfolio and the links with the government in different modalities.These variations and permanence can be explained by the impact of the new institutional context in the framework of a small economy like Uruguay. Although similar reforms in other countries in the region have strengthened national business groups (promoting their internationalization and their internal expansion into new business areas), the Uruguayan case seems to represent the opposite. In this way, the paper contributes to the discussion about family groups and their adaptation to the context of the second globalization in peripheral economies.

The restructuring of capitalism involved profound changes in the way companies operate, in the integration of markets and in the sphere of state sovereignty. Economic globalization has intensified competition between companies, workers and nations. The hierarchical, dollar-led international monetary order has boosted uneven and combined development. The aim of this paper is to stimulate reflection on contemporary capitalism from the perspective of political economy. The dynamics of financial flows and the increase in wealth stocks have had impacts on macroeconomic management, job creation and income distribution in developed countries. The early deindustrialization of Latin American economies and the consistent industrialization of Asian economies altered the international division of labor and differentiated the capitalist periphery. The financialization of wealth and the empowerment of rentierism have constrained most governments to work towards full employment and social protection. The widespread global value chains and the redefining of the pattern of competition by large corporations have negatively affected unions and the labor market, increasing unemployment (even if in disguise) and precarious labor relations. La reestructuración del capitalismo significó cambios profundos en el modo de operación de las empresas, en la integración de los mercados y en la esfera de la soberanía del Estado. La globalización económica ha intensificado la competencia entre empresas, trabajadores y naciones. El orden monetario internacional jerárquico, dirigido por el dólar, potencializó un tipo de desarrollo desigual y combinado. El objetivo de este artículo es estimular la reflexión sobre el capitalismo contemporáneo desde la óptica de la economía política. La dinámica de los flujos financieros y el aumento del stock de riqueza han tenido un impacto en la gestión macroeconómica, la creación de empleo y la distribución del ingreso en los países desarrollados. La desindustrialización temprana de las economías latinoamericanas y la industrialización constante de las economías asiáticas alteraron la división internacional del trabajo y diferenciaron la periferia capitalista. La financiarización de la riqueza y el empoderamiento del rentismo redujeron la participación de la mayoría de los gobiernos en pro del pleno empleo y la protección social. La difusión de las cadenas globales de valor y la redefinición del patrón de competencia por parte de las grandes corporaciones han afectado negativamente a los sindicatos y al mercado laboral, aumentando el desempleo (incluso disfrazado) y la precariedad de las relaciones laborales. La reestructuration du capitalisme e entraîné de profonds changements dans le mode de fonctionnement des entreprises, dans l’intégration des marches et dans la sphère de la souveraineté des États. La mondialisation économique a intensifié la concurrence entre les entreprises, les travailleurs et les nations. L’ordre monétaire international hiérarchisé, dominé par le dollar, a favorisé um dévelloppement inégal et combine. Le but de cet article est de stimuler la réflexion sur le capitalisme contemporain du point du vue de l’économie politique. La dynamique des flux financiers et la hausse des stocks de richesse ont a eu une incidence sur la gestion macroéconomique, la création d’emplois et la répartition des revenus dans les pays développés. La désindustrialisation precoce des économies latino-américaines et l’industrialisation cohérente des économies asiatiques ont modifié la division internationale du travail et différencié la périphérie capitaliste. La financiarisation de la richesse et l’autonomisation du rentier ont contraint la plupart des gouvernements à oeuvrer pour le plein emploi et la protection sociale. Les chaînes de valeur mondiales répandues et la redéfinition du modèle de concurrence des grandes entreprises ont eu um impact négatif sur les syndicats et le marché du travail, entraînant chômage (même déguisé) et des relations de travails précaires. A reestruturação do capitalismo envolveu mudanças profundas no modo de operação das empresas, na integração dos mercados e na esfera de soberania do Estado. A globalização econômica acirrou a competição entre empresas, trabalhadores e nações. A ordem monetária internacional hierarquizada, comandada pelo dólar, potencializou um desenvolvimento desigual e combinado. O objetivo do artigo é estimular a reflexão sobre o capitalismo contemporâneo pela ótica da Economia Política. A dinâmica dos fluxos financeiros e o aumento dos estoques de riqueza produziram impactos na gestão macroeconômica, geração de empregos e distribuição de renda nos países desenvolvidos. A desindustrialização precoce de economias latino-americanas e a industrialização consistente de economias asiáticas alteraram a divisão internacional do trabalho e diferenciaram a periferia capitalista. A financeirização da riqueza e o empoderamento do rentismo restringiram a atuação da maioria dos governos em prol do pleno emprego e da proteção social. A difusão das cadeias globais de valor e a redefinição do padrão de concorrência de grandes corporações afetaram negativamente os sindicatos e o mercado de trabalho, aumentando o desemprego (mesmo que disfarçado) e a precariedade das relações de trabalho.

Published online: 22 Mar 2018 In all advanced democracies, policies related to the welfare state are the largest part of public policy activity. Cross-pressured by globalization, deindustrialization, rising public debts, demographic changes, permanent austerity and the rise of 'new social risks', welfare states in post-industrial democracies have entered a new phase of consolidation and transformation since the 1980s. Against early fears, retrenchment has not been 'the only game in town'. Rather, many countries have expanded new welfare policies such as 'social investments'. This collection adds to the recent literature on the emergence of the 'social investment state' in several ways: (1) it assesses to what degree social investment policies have become established across countries and at the EU level; (2) it demonstrates that and why the politics of social investment are different from those of compensatory social policies on the micro and macro level; and (3) it points at important socio-economic effects of social investments.

Advanced countries are losing their predominant position in the world economy. With the long-time productivity slowdown and the present long recession, a question arises about the threat of secular stagnation of the advanced world. In searching for the roots of this threat, leading world economistst accentuate either the demand side, or the supply side of the economy. In this respect, the authors add globalization as another important factor. Globalization has resulted in long-term global and internal imbalances, and caused deep problems in the advanced countries - deindustrialization, unemployment, growing dependence on the social safety net, and a permanent increase of government intrusion into the economy. After the 2008 crisis, fiscal and monetary policy concentrates on short-term support of economic recovery, leaving aside the deeper long-term deficiencies. With multiple negative trends acting in the same direction, the threat of secular stagnation should not be overlooked.

A theoretical analysis of the crisis of the neoliberal model of globalization, which led to the processes of deindustrialization in many countries of the world, including Ukraine, is presented. It is shown that through the restoration of the development of high-tech sectors of the real economy, a global economic model is changing, that gives a chance to overcome negative consequences of the global crisis. The analysis of various models of capitalism under conditions of neoliberal globalization, including those in the countries emerging in the postsocialist space, has been carried out. It is shown that solving the contradiction that has developed in Ukrainian economy between current and long-term tasks is possible on the basis of a reproductive approach.

Since 2001, China has been expanding its influence into Latin America, but this phenomenon has remained relatively underexamined. To help fill this gap, this thesis examines China’s bilateral relationships with Peru and Ecuador and examines the effect of China’s growing economic presence on their economic development. The main findings are that China’s loans and investments have supplied Peru and Ecuador with very short-term economic advantages, but their increasing financial presence also has adverse consequences that will likely worsen over time. This thesis identifies two major negative effects of China’s economic activity: 1) it exacerbates the resource curse through further deepening commodity dependence and undermining industrialization; and 2) increased Chinese investment in oil and mining provides short-term benefits, but also creates negative externalities such as pollution and deforestation, which are costly to address. In attempts to manage the China challenge, Peru relies on metal exports but successfully diversified into other service sectors, whereas Ecuador has been less successful in diversification, and its dependence on loans for oil has only deepened Ecuador’s debt. This thesis makes recommendations on how these countries can maximize the benefits from China’s growing economic presence, while minimizing the risks, and move toward more sustainable economic development. http://archive.org/details/theinfluenceofch1094562827 Major, United States Marine Corps Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Structural change is a vital element of successful development. Between 1985 and 2015, however, falling barriers to trade and transfer of technology shifted sectoral structures in different directions in different countries by intensifying endowment-related specialization. In skill-abundant developed countries, manufacturing became more skill-intensive and employed fewer workers. In land-scarce developing East Asia, labor-intensive manufacturing expanded, especially and hugely in China. In land-abundant Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East, by contrast, manufacturing shares fell, while in land-scarce South Asia labor-intensive manufacturing was constrained by low literacy and inadequate infrastructure. This pattern of structural change contributed to higher average growth rates during this period in land-scarce than in land-abundant developing countries. Future changes in sectoral structures and growth rates will continue to be shaped by differences among countries in land abundance and skill supplies that matter for development policy choices.

A recent literature documents that manufacturing employment growth in developing countries has been sluggish over the past decades, and that deindustrialization has often set in at historically low levels of income. However, there is little evidence on which kind of jobs are disappearing prematurely, and some debate on whether the phenomenon is structural or transitory. In this article, I use a new data set on manufacturing employment by occupation to document four stylized facts about `premature deindustrialization’: first, it is mostly unskilled jobs that have disappeared, and also the wage premium of workers with little formal education in manufacturing relative to other industries has declined. Second, the disappearing jobs have been among the most formal–both relative to other industries, and to the manufacturing average. Third, premature deindustrialization has been driven by occupations which are intensive in tasks that are vulnerable to an increasing adoption of ICT. Fourth, the phenomenon pertains most clearly to middle income countries, as low income countries have been spared from premature job losses. Overall, the employment patterns are consistent with a pervasive shift of the `automation frontier' separating tasks that are automated from those which are not, and suggest a structural decrease in the ability of manufacturing to employ unskilled labor productively.

A question that motivates this essay is: What insights can we offer from legal scholarship that Dani Rodrik could take on board and put to good use? Rodrik is an economist, but he might as well have been a lawyer in the way he builds his argument and anticipates counterarguments. I mean that as a compliment. As a bonus, he delivers the punch line with humor and grace. In his book I recognized several of the many contributions Rodrik has made: his argument for policy space and revitalization of industrial policy, the globalization trilemma, the idea and process of growth diagnostics and the idea of premature deindustrialization and the powerful challenge it presents to developing countries. I also recognized familiar characters: hyperglobalization, the globalization cheerleaders, the economics professor who speaks with nuance and qualifications when talking about the benefits of trade to graduate students in the classroom but is completely simplistic and even disingenuous when talking to the media. Let’s call this character the “two-faced” economist. The book has many valuable ideas, but I want to focus on three themes: (1) the plurality of models, (2) fair trade and (3) the agenda for the nation-state.

We assemble a large database of countries' manufacturing employment and output shares for 1970-2010. We ask whether increased global competition and labor-displacing technological change have made it more difficult for countries to industrialize in employment, and whether there are alternative routes to prosperity. We find that: (1) All of today's rich non- oil economies enjoyed at least 18% manufacturing employment shares in the past, and often did so before becoming rich; (2) Manufacturing employment peaks at lower incomes and shares today (typically below 18%), than in the past (often over 30%); (3) Although manufacturing labor productivity grew faster than non-manufacturing labor productivity within countries, they grew at similar rates globally, because factory jobs moved to less productive countries; and (4) Manufacturing's global employment share has not declined during the last 40 years. Industrialization has become more difficult, not because the sector has eliminated labor globally, but because of heightened international competition.

International audience; The economic and financial crisis in 2007-2008 revealed the extent of the deindustrialization era that France has entered. The economic situation and the rise of emerging countries tend to speed up this process for most of the historically industrialized countries in general and for France in particular. This acceleration process seems to lead to deterioration of the employment quality, especially at a regional level (Cedillo-Campos 2004). However, observers have been noticing that several elements are changing the face of the system by favouring the geographic return of the production (Mouhoud 2013). Is it a minor phenomenon or are we dealing with a long-term change of course? What would be the repercussions of relocations on the economy, the line of business and the job pools?.; La crise économique et financière de 2007-2008 a révélé l'importance du mouvement de désindustrialisation que subit la France. En effet, la conjoncture économique contemporaine et la montée des pays émergents accélèrent le processus ce qui présente une menace pour tous les pays anciennement industrialisés et pour la France en particulier. Cette accélération laisse entrevoir le risque d'une dégradation de l'emploi, en particulier à l'échelle régionale (Cedillo-Campos 2004). La période soulève de nombreuses questions sur l'avenir des activités et des productions existantes. Or, plusieurs éléments pourraient modifier la géographie de production en favorisant les retours de production. Sommes-nous face à un phénomène anecdotique, ponctuel ou face à un renversement de tendance à plus long terme ? Quels impacts pourraient avoir ces relocalisations sur le tissu économique, les secteurs d'activités et les bassins d'emplois ?