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The 2019 positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) was the strongest event since the 1960s which developed independently without coinciding El Niño. The dynamics is not fully understood. Here we show that in March–May, westward propagating oceanic Rossby waves, a remnant consequence of the weak 2018 Pacific warm condition, led to anomalous sea surface temperature warming in the southwest tropical Indian Ocean (TIO), inducing deep convection and anomalous easterly winds along the equator, which triggered the initial cooling in the east. In June–August, the easterly wind anomalies continued to evolve through ocean‐atmosphere coupling involving Bjerknes feedback and equatorial nonlinear ocean advection, until its maturity in September–November. This study clarifies the contribution of oceanic Rossby waves in the south TIO in different dynamic settings and reveals a new triggering mechanism for extreme IOD events that will help to understand IOD diversity. Plain Language Summary: The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is an ocean‐atmosphere coupled climatic phenomenon which can cause severe social and economic losses in the surrounding regions such as drought in the Maritime Continent/Australia and flooding in East Africa. The IOD features a see‐saw structure accompanied by an anomalous sea surface temperature gradient, winds, and oceanic adjustments. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the Pacific is an important trigger to a strong IOD event. However, an extreme positive IOD event occurred in 2019 without a concurrent or ensuing El Niño. We show that the thermocline warming associated with anomalous ocean downwelling in the southwest tropical Indian Ocean triggered atmospheric convection, inducing anomalous easterly winds along the equator and hence, positive feedbacks associated with an IOD event. This study may help to understand the evolution of extreme IOD and improve IOD predictability. Key Points: The oceanic downwelling Rossby waves in the south tropical Indian Ocean is key to the 2019 extreme positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)The Rossby waves induced thermocline warming, triggering wind‐evaporation‐SST feedback thus anomalous easterly winds along the equatorThe easterly wind anomalies further triggered the Bjerknes feedback and other positive feedbacks and established an extreme IOD [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using 20 models of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5), the simulation of the Southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO) thermocline dome is evaluated and its role in shaping the Indian Ocean Basin (IOB) mode following El Ni˜no investigated. In most of the CMIP5 models, due to an easterly wind bias along the equator, the simulated SWIO thermocline is too deep, which could further influence the amplitude of the interannual IOB mode. A model with a shallow (deep) thermocline dome tends to simulate a strong (weak) IOB mode, including key attributes such as the SWIO SST warming, antisymmetric pattern during boreal spring, and second North Indian Ocean warming during boreal summer. Under global warming, the thermocline dome deepens with the easterly wind trend along the equator in most of the models. However, the IOB amplitude does not follow such a change of the SWIO thermocline among the models; rather, it follows future changes in both ENSO forcing and local convection feedback, suggesting a decreasing effect of the deepening SWIO thermocline dome on the change in the IOB mode in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ENSO induces coherent climate anomalies over the Indo-western Pacific, but these anomalies outlast SST anomalies of the equatorial Pacific by a season, with major effects on the Asian summer monsoon. This review provides historical accounts of major milestones and synthesizes recent advances in the endeavor to understand summer variability over the Indo-Northwest Pacific region. Specifically, a large-scale anomalous anticyclone (AAC) is a recurrent pattern in post-El Ni˜no summers, spanning the tropical Northwest Pacific and North Indian oceans. Regarding the ocean memory that anchors the summer AAC, competing hypotheses emphasize either SST cooling in the easterly trade wind regime of the Northwest Pacific or SST warming in the westerly monsoon regime of the North Indian Ocean. Our synthesis reveals a coupled ocean-atmosphere mode that builds on both mechanisms in a two-stage evolution. In spring, when the northeast trades prevail, the AAC and Northwest Pacific cooling are coupled via wind-evaporation-SST feedback. The Northwest Pacific cooling persists to trigger a summer feedback that arises from the interaction of the AAC and North Indian Ocean warming, enabled by the westerly monsoon wind regime. This Indo-western Pacific ocean capacitor (IPOC) effect explains why El Ni˜no stages its last act over the monsoonal Indo-Northwest Pacific and casts the Indian Ocean warming and AAC in leading roles. The IPOC displays interdecadal modulations by the ENSO variance cycle, significantly correlated with ENSO at the turn of the 20th century and after the 1970s, but not in between. Outstanding issues, including future climate projections, are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The correlation between sea surface temperature (SST) and El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) persists into post-ENSO September over the South China Sea (SCS), the longest correlation in the World Ocean. Slow modulations of this correlation are analyzed by using the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Dataset (ICOADS). ENSO's influence on SCS SST has experienced significant interdecadal changes over the past 138 years (1870-2007), with a double-peak structure correlation after the 1960s compared to a single-peak before the 1940s. According to the ENSO correlation character, the analysis period is divided into four epochs. In epoch 3, 1960-83, the SST warming and enhanced precipitation over the southeastern tropical Indian Ocean, rather than the Indian Ocean basinwide warming, induce easterly wind anomalies and warm up the SCS in the summer following El Niño. Besides the Indian Ocean effect, during epochs 2 (1930-40) and 4 (1984-2007), the Pacific-Japan (PJ) pattern of atmospheric circulation anomalies helps sustain the SCS SST warming through summer (June-August) with easterly wind anomalies. The associated increase in shortwave radiation and decrease in upward latent heat flux cause the SCS SST warming to persist into the summer. Meanwhile, the rainfall response around the SCS to ENSO shows interdecadal variability, with stronger variability after the 1980s. The results suggest that both the remote forcing from the tropical Indian Ocean and the PJ pattern are important for the ENSO teleconnection to the SCS and its interdecadal modulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates interdecadal modulations of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) influence on the climate of the northwest Pacific (NWP) and East Asia (EA) in early boreal summer following a winter ENSO event, based on 19 simulations from phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5). In the historical run, 8 out of 19 models capture a realistic relationship between ENSO and NWP early summer climate-an anomalous anticyclone develops over the NWP following a winter El Niño event-and the interdecadal modulations of this correlation. During periods when the association between ENSO and NWP early summer climate is strong, ENSO variance and ENSO-induced anomalies of summer sea surface temperature (SST) and tropospheric temperature over the tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) all strengthen relative to periods when the association is weak. In future projections with representative concentration pathways 4.5 and 8.5, the response of TIO SST, tropospheric temperature, and NWP anomalous anticyclone to ENSO all strengthen regardless of ENSO amplitude change. In a warmer climate, low-level specific humidity response to interannual SST variability strengthens following the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. The resultant intensification of tropospheric temperature response to interannual TIO warming is suggested as the mechanism for the strengthened ENSO effect on NWP-EA summer climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates the simulation of the Indian Ocean Basin (IOB) mode and relevant physical processes in models from phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5). Historical runs from 20 CMIP5 models are available for the analysis. They reproduce the IOB mode and its close relationship to El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Half of the models capture key IOB processes: a downwelling oceanic Rossby wave in the southern tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) precedes the IOB development in boreal fall and triggers an antisymmetric wind anomaly pattern across the equator in the following spring. The anomalous wind pattern induces a second warming in the north Indian Ocean (NIO) through summer and sustains anticyclonic wind anomalies in the northwest Pacific by radiating a warm tropospheric Kelvin wave. The second warming in the NIO is indicative of ocean-atmosphere interaction in the interior TIO. More than half of the models display a double peak in NIO warming, as observed following El Niño, while the rest show only one winter peak. The intermodel diversity in the characteristics of the IOB mode seems related to the thermocline adjustment in the south TIO to ENSO-induced wind variations. Almost all the models show multidecadal variations in IOB variance, possibly modulated by ENSO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tropical Indian Ocean dipole/zonal mode (IOD) is phase locked with the austral winter and spring seasons. This study describes three types of the IOD in terms of their peak time and duration. In particular, the authors focus on a new type that develops in May-June and matures in July-August, which is distinctively different from the canonical IOD, which may develop later and peak in September-November or persist from June to November. Such 'unseasonable' IOD events are only observed since the mid-1970s, a period after which the tropical Indian Ocean has a closer relationship with the Pacific Ocean. The unseasonable IOD is an intrinsic mode of the Indian Ocean and occurs without an ensuing El Niño. A change in winds along the equator is identified as a major forcing. The wind change is in turn related to a weakening Walker circulation in the Indian Ocean sector in austral winter, which is in part forced by the rapid Indian Ocean warming. Thus, although the occurrence of the unseasonable IOD may be partially influenced by oceanic variability, the authors' results suggest an influence from the Indian Ocean warming. This suggestion, however, awaits further investigation using fully coupled climate models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]