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Charcot's career, as is well-known, reached a summit with his acquisition of the Faculty clinical chair of diseases of the nervous system inaugurated in 1882. Based upon previously untapped archival materials at the Charcot Library and the National Archives, this paper explores four questions: I. Was "Charcot's chair" really the first specialized chair for neurology?; 2. Was it founded specifically for Charcot?; 3. What role did the Faculty of Medicine play and did it offer any opposition?; 4. How important was the creation of the chair for the flourishing of the Salpêtrière school. Evidence is presented to show that Charcot considered a specialized chair in nervous diseases a high priority for his career and his school. Sometime around 1880, convinced of the importance of this project, he began to assemble arguments in its behalf from French and foreign sources, particularly from his German colleagues, Westphal and Erb. He learned that there were no precedents, not even in Berlin. Charcot's carefully prepared manuscript memoir presented a strong case for the "necessity" of the chair based on the recent progress and theoretical as well as practical importance of his subject. He described psychiatry, which already had a Faculty clinical chair, as but a "small part" of neuropathology and rejected the idea of combining the two disciplines. Although the project encountered opposition from several Faculty colleagues, who claimed that it was a personal favor for Charcot, powerful support from political allies such as Gambetta and Ferry ensured government funding. In fact, government action in behalf of the creation of the chair for Charcot preceded and surprised the medical Faculty. This paper shows the extent to which Charcot's own initiatives and arguments set the agenda and defined the role he envisaged for the new foundation at the center of the clinical research and teaching centre emerging under his direction at the Salpêtrière.

Charcot occupies an important place among Rayer's disciples although they did not publish any work together. They met for the first time in 1848 and later at the Société de Biologie. From 1853 to 1855 Charcot was Piorry's chef de Clinique" near Rayer's department at the Charité hospital. In 1860 Charcot was nominated "professeur agrégé with Rayer's backing. Several publications of Charcot with other disciples of Rayer (Ch. Robin, C. Davaine) are recalled as well as his paper, signed alone in 1858, on chronical arterial ischemia (Syndrome of Bouley and Charcot). An unpublished letter from Rayer recommending Charcot to the librarian of the Institut de France (1859) as well as a partial and undated one from Charcot back from England to Rayer are published here.

Background: Immunotherapy is changing the way we treat cancer. Immunogenic cell death (ICD) has received considerable attention in the treatments of various cancer types, due to the long-lasting antitumor responses elicited in human body. However, to date, no relevant bibliometric research has been reported. Methods: Publications related to ICD in cancer research were collected from the Web of Science Core Collection. Using CiteSpace, VOSviewer and an online platform, the analyses of co-author, co-citation, and co-occurrence of terms retrieved from literatures were carried out. Results: A total of 1,577 publications were included in this study. The global research literatures on ICD in cancer research have been increasing from 2005 to 2021. China, the United States and France dominated in this area and had close collaborations with many countries. Six of the top 10 most contributive institutions were from France. When it comes to author analysis, Kroemer G, Zitvogel L, Kepp O, Garg AD and Galluzzi L were in both the top 10 most productive authors and top 10 most co-cited authors lists. The co-occurring author keywords could be grouped into three clusters: "biomarkers of ICD", "nanoparticles" and "combination therapy". In terms of promising hotspots, keywords (author keywords and KeyWords Plus) with recent citation bursts could be summarized into two aspects: "tumor microenvironment" and "nanoparticles". Conclusion: Increased attention has been paid to ICD in cancer treatment. However, there are still many unresolved domains in the field of ICD, such as clinical application and molecular mechanisms of this cell death process. ICD-inducing modalities combined with nanotechnology could potentiate the current immunotherapies, and will be hotspots for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The incidence of multiple sclerosis (MS) changes from generation to generation in ethnically different immigrants compared with native-born people. We aimed to determine whether there are generational changes in MS phenotypes among North African immigrants in France. Methods: Cohort study with data from a population-based MS registry to compare the clinical characteristics of 80 first (NAG1) and 167 second (NAG2) generation North Africans with MS living in France with 5200 native-born Europeans. Adjusted Cox models were used to test the association between scores of 3 and 6 on the expanded disability status scale (EDSS) and the “origin/generation” variable. Results: Cox models for EDSS scores 3 and 6 showed a higher risk of score 3 (hazard ratio = 1.738, 95% confidence interval 1.237 to 2.444; P = .002) and 6 (hazard ratio = 2.372, 95% confidence interval 1.626 to 3.462; P<.0001) for NAG1 than Europeans. Being NAG2 was not significantly associated with higher hazards of scores 3 and 6. Conclusions: We found two different phenotypes among NAG1 and NAG2 MS patients in France. NAG1, but not NAG2, have a higher risk of disability than Europeans. This raises the question of environmental factors in MS expression, and advocates appropriate patient management according to generation in immigrants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Results of associations between process and mortality indicators, both used for the external assessment of hospital care quality or public reporting, differ strongly across studies. However, most of those studies were conducted in North America or United Kingdom. Providing new evidence based on French data could fuel the international debate on quality of care indicators and help inform French policy-makers. The objective of our study was to explore whether optimal care delivery in French hospitals as assessed by their Hospital Process Indicators (HPIs) is associated with low Hospital Standardized Mortality Ratios (HSMRs).Methods: The French National Authority for Health (HAS) routinely collects for each hospital located in France, a set of mandatory HPIs. Five HPIs were selected among the process indicators collected by the HAS in 2009. They were measured using random samples of 60 to 80 medical records from inpatients admitted between January 1st, 2009 and December 31, 2009 in respect with some selection criteria. HSMRs were estimated at 30, 60 and 90 days post-admission (dpa) using administrative health data extracted from the national health insurance information system (SNIIR-AM) which covers 77% of the French population. Associations between HPIs and HSMRs were assessed by Poisson regression models corrected for measurement errors with a simulation-extrapolation (SIMEX) method.Results: Most associations studied were not statistically significant. Only two process indicators were found associated with HSMRs. Completeness and quality of anesthetic records was negatively associated with 30 dpa HSMR (0.72 [0.52-0.99]). Early detection of nutritional disorders was negatively associated with all HSMRs: 30 dpa HSMR (0.71 [0.54-0.95]), 60 dpa HSMR (0.51 [0.39-0.67]) and 90 dpa HSMR (0.52 [0.40-0.68]).Conclusion: In absence of gold standard of quality of care measurement, the limited number of associations suggested to drive in-depth improvements in order to better determine associations between process and mortality indicators. A smart utilization of both process and outcomes indicators is mandatory to capture aspects of the hospital quality of care complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The present study aimed to describe exposure and attitudes of French medical residents towards pharmaceutical industry. The study was performed shortly after the Mediator affair which revealed several serious conflicts of interest inside the French health system. Methods and Findings: A cross-sectional study was implemented among residents from 6 French medical faculties. Independent education in pharmacology, attitudes towards the practices of pharmaceutical sales representatives, opinions concerning the pharmaceutical industry, quality of information provided by the pharmaceutical industry, and opinions about pharmaceutical company sponsorship were investigated through a web-based questionnaire. We also assessed potential changes in resident attitudes following the Mediator affair. The mean value of exposure to drug companies was 1.9 times per month. Global opinions towards drug company information were negative for 42.7% of the residents and positive for only 8.2%. Surprisingly, 81.6% of residents claimed that they had not changed their practices regarding drug information since the Mediator affair. Multivariate analyses found that residents in anesthesiology were less likely to be exposed than others (OR = 0.17 CI95% [0.05–0.61]), exposure was significantly higher at the beginning of residence (p<0.001) and residents who had a more positive opinion were more frequently exposed to drug companies (OR = 2.12 CI95% [1.07–4.22]). Conclusions: Resident exposure to drug companies is around 1 contact every 2 weeks. Global opinion towards drug information provided by pharmaceutical companies was negative for around 1 out of 2 residents. In contrast, residents tend to consider the influences of the Mediator affair on their practice as relatively low. This survey enabled us to identify profiles of residents who are obviously less exposed to pharmaceutical industry. Current regulatory provisions are not sufficient, indicating that further efforts are necessary to develop a culture of disclosure of conflict of interest and of transparency in residents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To evaluate, among alcohol specialists belonging to the Société Française d’Alcoologie (SFA), i.e., the French Alcohol Society, the proportion of physicians who prescribed off-label baclofen for alcohol use disorders (AUDs). The secondary objective was to depict the features of individual prescribing and monitoring practices. Methods: On-line survey among 484 French alcohol specialists. Physicians were asked whether they prescribed baclofen for AUDs. If they did not, the reasons for this choice were investigated. If they did, the features of the physician’s prescribing practice were explored, including the number of patients treated, the mean and maximum doses, the monitoring precautions and the pharmacovigilance reporting. Participants were also asked about their empirical findings on HDB’s efficacy and safety. Results: In total, 302 physicians (response rate of 62.4%) participated in the survey. Data from 296 participants were analysed, representing 59.4% of all active prescribing physicians belonging to the SFA. HDB use was declared by 74.6% of participants (mean dose 109.5±43.6 mg/d; maximum dose 188±93.3 mg/d). However, 79.2% of prescribers had treated less than 30 patients, and 67.8% used HDB as a second-line medication. Although HDB was perceived as more efficacious than approved drugs by 54.3% of prescribers, it was also declared less safe by 62.8%. Nonetheless, 79.7% of prescribers had never filed any pharmacovigilance report. Non-prescribers (25.6%) were primarily deterred by the current lack of scientific data and official regulation. Conclusion: A majority of French alcohol specialists reported using HDB, although often on a limited number of their patients. HDB was considered efficacious but also potentially hazardous. Despite this, physicians reported minimal safety data to the health security system. While French health authorities are planning to draft a specific regulatory measure for framing off-label HDB prescribing practices, the sustained education of prescribers on spontaneous pharmacovigilance reporting should be enhanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Prescribing of antibiotics for upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) varies substantially in primary care. Objectives: To describe and compare antibiotic and antipyretic/anti-inflammatory drugs use, URTI symptoms' resolution and occurrence of potentially-associated infections in patients seeking care from general practitioners (GPs) who exclusively prescribe conventional medications (GP-CM), regularly prescribe homeopathy within a mixed practice (GP-Mx), or are certified homeopathic GPs (GP-Ho). Method: The EPI3 survey was a nationwide population-based study of a representative sample of 825 GPs and their patients in France (2007–2008). GP recruitment was stratified by self-declared homeopathic prescribing preferences. Adults and children with confirmed URTI were asked to participate in a standardized telephone interview at inclusion, one-, three- and twelve-month follow up. Study outcomes included medication consumption, URTI symptoms' resolution and potentially-associated infections (sinusitis or otitis media/externa) as reported by patients. Analyses included calibration to account for non-respondents and groups were compared using multivate analyses adjusting for baseline differences with a propensity score. Results: 518 adults and children with URTI (79.3% rhinopharyngitis) were included (36.9% response rate comparable between groups). As opposed to GP-CM patients, patients in the GP-Ho group showed significantly lower consumption of antibiotics (Odds ratio (OR) = 0.43, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.27–0.68) and antipyretic/anti-inflammatory drugs (OR = 0.54, 95% CI: 0.38–0.76) with similar evolution in related symptoms (OR = 1.16, 95% CI: 0.64–2.10). An excess of potentially-associated infections (OR = 1.70, 95% CI: 0.90–3.20) was observed in the GP-Ho group (not statistically significant). No difference was found between GP-CM and GP-Mx patients. Conclusion: Patients who chose to consult GPs certified in homeopathy used less antibiotics and antipyretic/anti-inflammatory drugs for URTI than those seen by GPs prescribing conventional medications. No difference was observed in patients consulting GPs within mixed-practice. A non-statistically significant excess was estimated through modelling for associated infections in the GP-Ho group and needs to be further studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Limited information is available on the epidemiology and economics of bleeding during surgery in France. Method: The objective of this study was to examine the incidence, costs and length of stay (LOS) of bleedingrelated complications during various surgical procedures. A retrospective DRG (diagnosis-related group) analysis was conducted using the French National database PMSI (Programme Médicalisé des Systèmes d'Informations). Patients undergoing surgery during 2008 were identified according to their DRG classifications and those with at least one episode of secondary haemostasis and blood transfusion (according to French procedure codes) were designated as 'with bleeding' (WB). The analysis focussed on DRGs where ⩾ 10% of patients presenting with bleeding and compared them to patients who did not require blood transfusions (i.e. without bleeding: WoB). Hospital LOS and costs (age and gender adjusted) were compared between WB and WoB patients within each DRG. Hospitalisation periods exceeding the LOS average (derived from the PMSI database) were compared using multivariate logistic regression adjusted for patient characteristics. Results: Amongst all 88 different surgical DRGs recognised by the French database 24 (totalling 321,657 hospitalisations) yielded WB rates ⩾ 10% (range 10.3-25.3%). The highest DRG rates were for transplantations, cardiac and major orthopaedic surgery, vascular and solid organ surgery. The average LOS for the WB population (adjusted for age, gender, number of procedures and secondary diagnoses) were 3.38 days (26.5%) longer than for the WoB population (p < 0.001). The average adjusted LOS costs for a WB patient were estimated at €12,087, and for a WoB patient €10,086 i.e. 19.9% higher than for WB patients (p < 0.001). The overall mean LOS was exceeded by 42.3% of WB patients compared to 37.0% of WoB patients (p < 0.001). Also, WB patients were more likely to exceed the average LOS than were WoB patients (Odds Ratio (OR) = 1.09, p < 0.001), after adjusting for patient characteristics. Conclusions: The present study for France demonstrates a significant increase of hospital LOS and associated costs following post-surgical bleeding, supporting the need for blood conservation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

François Chapuis and colleagues examine a cohort of clinical trial protocols approved by French ethics committees, and show that Phase I trials are less frequently published than other types of trials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A questionnaire in French and English was sent to physicians practising geriatric medicine in France and the UK concerning certain aspects of their clinical practice. It also enquired of the doctors their place of practice, year of qualification, present position held, and in which part of the respective country they worked. Most of the answers reflect major divergencies in methods of clinical practice between the two countries. These answers are reported, highlighted, commented on, and speculation made of the possible reasons for the differences. We feel that international questionnaires are a useful way of alerting doctors to areas of practice which are falsely assumed to be correct; they may also reveal the possible basic solutions to common clinical problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]