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The study of the supramolecular organization of the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation system (OXPHOS) in various eukaryotes has led to the accumulation of a considerable amount of data on the composition, stoichiometry, and architecture of its constituent superstructures. However, the link between the features of system arrangement and the biological characteristics of the studied organisms has been poorly explored. Here, we report a comparative investigation into supramolecular and functional OXPHOS organization in the mitochondria of etiolated shoots of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), maize (Zea mays L.), and pea (Pisum sativum L.). Investigations based on BN-PAGE, in-gel activity assays, and densitometric analysis revealed both similarities and specific OXPHOS features apparently related to the life strategies of each species. Frost-resistant winter wheat was distinguished by highly stable basic I1III2IVa/b respirasomes and V2 dimers, highly active complex I, and labile complex IV, which were probably essential for effective OXPHOS adaptation during hypothermia. Maize, a C4 plant, had the highly stable dimers IV2 and V2, less active complex I, and active alternative NAD(P)H dehydrogenases. The latter fact could contribute to successful chloroplast–mitochondrial cooperation, which is essential for highly efficient photosynthesis in this species. The pea OXPHOS contained detergent-resistant high-molecular respirasomes I1–2III2IVn, highly active complexes IV and V, and stable succinate dehydrogenase, suggesting an active energy metabolism in organelles of this plant. The results and conclusions are in good agreement with the literature data on the respiratory activity of mitochondria from these species and are summarized in a proposed scheme of organization of OXPHOS fragments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maize and wheat are the main cereal forage crops cultivated at a global scale. They are among preferred forage grains for poultry nutrition. The aim of this study was to evaluate the productive performance of broiler chickens, whose compound feeds contained either maize, or wheat alone and maize +wheat combination. The experiment was performed with 120 day-old male ROSS hybrid chicks reared on the floor for 49 days. The birds were divided into three groups, each one consisting of two subgroups, as follows: group Е1 – fed forage with maize and wheat; group Е2 – fed forage with wheat and group Е3 – forage with maize. The live weight, feed intake, feed conversion and slaughter traits were investigated. By the 49 th day of age, the live weight of chickens from groups Е1 and Е2 fed diet with maize and wheat (35.99%+28%), and only wheat without maize (66%) were the heaviest, 3147.18 g and 3361.32 g, respectively. Chicks from group E3 fed the diet containing only maize (64.12%) without wheat had the lowest average live weight (2587.75 g at Р<0.0001). Wheat, as a single cereal in broiler compound feeds, and its combination with maize had the most beneficial effect on weight gain and feed conversion over the entire fattening period (P<0.001). The improved weight gain of birds fed these diets was accompanied with higher feed intake (P<0.001) compared to birds fed forage with maize only. The slaughter yield and the breast with bone cut increased statistically significantly in the wheat-fed groups (P<0.001). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maize and wheat are important stable food and cash crops in Ethiopia. However, the productivity and quality of these crops are highly limited by high weed infestations. Identification and quantification of weeds are very important. The survey was conducted to identify and document weed species in study areas. Therefore, the objectives were to determine the distribution of weeds, to document major cereal crops weed species and to identify newly introduced weeds in study areas. The study was carried out in Siltie zone (Sankura and Lanfuro districts) and Gurage zone (Mareko and Meskan districts) during 2022 cropping season. A total of 22 fields for each crop were randomly assessed within minimum of 3 kilometres distance. The selected field was assessed by using 0.5 m × 0.5 m quadrants. The assessment in farms was performed with a simple random sampling technique by throwing quadrants. There were three random sampling sites per field taken. The survey result revealed that thirteen weed families and twenty nine weed species were identified in maize field while fifteen weed families and thirty weed species in wheat field. The family Poaceae, Asteraceae and Solanaceae were dominant families in both maize and wheat fields. The frequency (0.05 up to 0.95%) and the dominance (0.09% up to 38.55%) of weed species were recorded in maize field, while the frequency (0.05 up to 0.95%) and the dominance (0.05% up to 57.81) of weed species in wheat field. Galinsoga parviflora, Phalaris minor and Guzotia scabra weeds in maize field and Galinsoga parviflora, Avena fatua, Guzotia scabra, Phalaris minor and Cyperus species weeds in wheat field were the most frequent and dominant weeds in four selected districts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cover crops (CC) have great potential to enhance the sustainability of agroecosystems. However, the wide range of possible rotations of CC and cash crops (CaC) means that important knowledge gaps persist on how CC affects CaC. We investigated the legacy effects of five common CC (three monocultures: vetch, melilotus, and barley, and two mixtures: barley-vetch and barley-melilotus) on two of the most important CaC, maize and wheat. A microcosm, semi-controlled experiment was established simulating warm, low-income Mediterranean conditions. After two cycles, soil physicochemical and microbial properties, as well as plant growth and nutrition variables, were measured at the CC early growth CaC stage. In maize, barley CC had the best soil microbial and nutritional legacy effects, which resulted in the highest biomass and nutrient status. In contrast, barley produced the worst results on wheat, showing the disadvantages of growing two crops from the same tribe consecutively. CC mixtures also did not offer a productive advantage over pure CC. Additionally, our findings suggest that archaea seem to play a role in increasing N and Zn content in maize shoots. Furthermore, shoot B contents showed highly significant regressions with the CaC biomass. These results can help select the appropriate CC in each case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper purpose was to assess the impact of climate change on wheat, maize and sunflower yield in the period 2017-2021, using statistical data from National Institute of Statistics (NIS) and National Administration of Meteorology (NAM) and other sources. Comparison method was used to evaluate the deviations between the registered air temperatures and precipitations and the 1981-2010 climatological norm. Graphic method reflected the dynamics of monthly air temperatures and rainfalls in each year. Descriptive statistics for mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation reflected an more comprehensive image upon air temperature, precipitations and yield. Correlations and regression equations were used to establish the intensity of the kinks between climate factors and yield. The highest average air temperature In Romania was 12.130C in 2019. In the period 2017-2020, the average annual temperatures exceeded the climatological norm 1981-2010 accounting for 9.10C. The lowest rainfalls, 614.2 mm, were recorded in 2019, being below of 633.1 mm the norm for the period 1981-2010. The high temperatures associated with drought and low precipitations have deeply affected yield of many agricultural crops, including maize, wheat and sunflower. The highest wheat yield 4,888 kg/ha was achieved in 2017, and the lowest one, 2,966 kg/ha in 2020. Maize registered the highest performance of 7,644 kg/ha in 2018, and the lowest one, 3,977 kg/ha in 2020. Sunflower carried out the high performance 3,041 kg/ha in 2018, and the lowest one, 1,858 kg/ha in 2020. The worst agricultural years for these three crops was 2020, but 2017 favored wheat, while 2018 favored maize and sunflower. The correlation coefficient had in general small values between average temperature and yield, but a higher link with precipitations level. The multiple correlation between yield, air temperatures and precipitations was: r= 0.817 for wheat, r = 0.116 for maize and r = 0.504 for sunflower. In the South Eastern Dobrogea, the driest area in Romania, the rainfalls declined by 65% in the period 2018-2020 having a deep negative impact on sunflower seeds yield, which decreased from 4,282 kg/ha in 2018, to 1,503 kg/ha in 2020. The correlation between precipitations and sunflower yield positive and very strong (r = 0.737). As a conclusion, the climate conditions should be analyzed in each farm and farmers have to take measure to adapt the technologies for sustaining production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of present study was to investigate the potential of indigenous plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) for enhancing the nutrient availability and plant growth. Field experiment was conducted and total three sampling sites [Bhimber (BH), Samahni (SA) and Barnala (BA)] were selected. Samples were collected from fallow fields under long term (about 70 years) cultivation of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and maize (Zea mays). Soil nutrients and physicochemical properties were determined and climatic data was obtained from the nearest metrological station. Total 26 different isolates were obtained from the soils, out of which 10 were from SA while 8 each from BH and BA soils. The highest amount of IAA (44.8 µg/mL), siderophore production (12.83 µg/mL), N-fixation (128.6 µg/mL) and P-sol (40.01 µg/mL) was recorded in SA as compared to BH and BA soils while Ksol (13.61 µg/mL) and Znsol (28.2 µg/mL) was highest in BA. Bacillus spp. showed maximum IAA production (52.01 µg/mL), Ksol (19.1 µg/mL) and ZnSol (34.64 µg/mL). The maximum GA (1371 µg/mL), siderophore production (17.22 µg/mL) and Psol (62.64 µg/mL) was observed by Pseudomonas spp. The production and solubilization of some important plant growth hormones and nutrients were highest in SA by Bacillus, Rhizobium, Pseudomonas, BH by Pseudomonas and BA by Bacillus. It was concluded that PGPB have potential to promote growth of plants and nutrient regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High temperature inhibits the growth and development of maize (Zea mays L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings. The current study attempts to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of exogenous trehalose for the improvement of maize and wheat responses to heat stress. Results show that, in maize seedlings, exogenously-supplied trehalose was able to effectively elevate the capacity of photosynthetic carbon assimilation and improve the carbohydrate content via up-regulating the transcript levels of key enzymes including phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase (PEPC), NADP-malate dehydrogenase (NADP-MDH), NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-ME), pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PPDK) and Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase small subunit. Besides, it was also able to improve C4 pathway enzyme activities, including PEPC, NADP-MDH, NADP-ME and Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (RUBPCase). In wheat seedlings, exogenously-supplied trehalose promoted photosynthetic carbon assimilation by elevating the activity of RUBPCase. These results show that exogenous trehalose improved photosynthetic carbon assimilation capacities in maize and wheat seedlings under heat stress through different mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The water footprint (WF), based on irrigation water quality, is important as a decision-making tool for crop selection based on the comparative advantage of water consumption and yield to maximize agricultural water productivity and sustainably improve water use efficiency. This paper presents a generic link between climate variability and water footprint. To support this link, a case study is presented for wheat and maize in different agro-climate zones in Egypt. In this study, the three agro-ecological zones, Nile Delta, Middle Egypt, and Upper Egypt, were selected to represent three different microclimates. The climate data were analyzed to estimate reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and calculate crop water use (CWU) for wheat and maize from 2015 through 2019. Cultivated area and yield data were analyzed during the study period. Water footprint (WF) was calculated for old land (clay soils) and new lands (sandy soils) in three climate regions based on blue and grey water. Green water was excluded due to negligible rainfall depths in Egypt. The results showed that the mean values of WF for maize were 1067, 1395, 1655 m3/ton in old land and 1395, 1634, 2232 m3/ton in new land under the three climate regions, respectively, while it was 923, 982, 1117 m3/ton in old land and 1180, 1258, 1452 m3/ton for wheat in new land for the three regions, respectively. The results show that the crop water use fluctuated over regions due to climate variability where the CWU values were 6211, 7335, 8007 m3/ha for maize and 4348, 4825, 5774 m3/ha for wheat in the three regions, respectively. The results show an 11% and 33% increase in maize and an 18% and 29% increase in wheat CWU in Middle and Upper Egypt regions comparing to what was observed in Nile Delta due to an increase in solar radiation, temperature, and wind speed. The Egypt mean value of wheat water footprint was 1152 m3/ton and mean value of maize water footprint was 1563 m3/ton. The data clearly show the effect of microclimate variability on WF and irrigation requirements between regions. The methodology and results from this study provide a pathway to help the policy makers to mitigate climate change impacts on crop yield and to enhance water resources management in major crop production regions by redistribution of the cropping patterns based on the comparative advantages of each crop within each region. The crop choices relative to the soil water retention characteristics could also contribute to the moderation of microclimate, which affects ETo and ETc and the water footprint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, worldwide scientific efforts towards controlling maize late wilt disease (LWD) have focused on eco-friendly approaches that minimize the environmental impact and health risks. This disease is considered to be the most severe threat to maize fields in Israel and Egypt, and a major growth restraint in India, Spain, and Portugal. Today's most commonly used method for LWD control involving resistant maize genotypes is under constant risk from aggressive pathogen lines. Thus, this study's objectives were to evaluate the effect of crop rotation and avoiding tillage on restraining the disease. Such an agrotechnical approach will support the continuity of soil mycorrhiza networks, which antagonize the disease's causal agent, Magnaporthiopsis maydis. The method gained positive results in previous studies, but many knowledge gaps still need to be addressed. To this end, a dual-season study was conducted using the LWD hyper-susceptible maize hybrid, Megaton cv. The trials were performed in a greenhouse and in the field over full dual-growth seasons (wheat or clover as the winter crop followed by maize as the summer crop). In the greenhouse under LWD stress, the results clearly demonstrate the beneficial effect of maize crop rotation with clover and wheat on plant weight (1.4-fold), height (1.1–1.2-fold) and cob yield (1.8–2.4-fold), especially in the no-till soil. The clover-maize growth sequence excels in reducing disease impact (1.7-fold) and pathogen spread in the host tissues (3-fold). Even though the wheat-maize crop cycle was less effective, it still had better results than the commercial mycorrhizal preparation treatment and the uncultivated non-infected soil. The results were slightly different in the field. The clover-maize rotation also achieved the best growth promotion and disease restraint results (2.6-fold increase in healthy plants), but the maize rotation with wheat showed only minor efficiency. Interestingly, pre-cultivating the soil with clover had better results in no-till soil in both experiments. In contrast, the same procedure with wheat had a better impact when tillage was applied. It may be concluded that crop rotation and soil cultivation can be essential in reducing LWD, but other factors may affect this approach's benefits in commercial field growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mechanical properties of the materials stored in agricultural silos determine the loads they generate under static and dynamic conditions. The present work describes the mechanical properties of wheat, maize and wood pellets. Direct shear and triaxial assay devices, and oedometers (all commonly used in geotechnical assays), were used to determine these materials' internal angle of friction, Poisson's ratio, Young's modulus, apparent specific weight, etc. The results for wheat and maize were similar to those previously reported by other authors. For the wood pellets, the results for the internal angle of friction and apparent specific weight were also similar to those found in the literature. However, this is a relatively new type of material, and few results of this type have been reported, certainly not enough for reference values to be available. This work is the first to report this material's dilatancy angle and Poisson's ratio. A table is provided with suggested reference values for the studied mechanical properties of each of the test materials; these can be used in silo load calculations involving numerical methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concerns about the effects of global warming on crop yields have been raised due to stagnating yield progress in recent years. However, an understanding of the effects of changes in temperature and rainfall throughout the crop cycle on historical yield progress is lacking in Europe (EU). In this study, positive wheat, barley, rice, and maize yield progress in the EU (1961–2019) was significant, with rates of 0.05, 0.04, 0.05, and 0.07 Tha−1year−1, for the four crops respectively. Much of this progress has been sustained by Eastern European countries (EE), which had the highest yield progress rates. On average, in the case of wheat and barley, a temperature increase of 1°C in the winter resulted in yields increasing by +0.33 Tha−1 in EE. This was potentially due to decreasing cold damage and improved photosynthesis and vegetative growth, supporting positive yield progress. Recent historical (2001–2019) rates of wheat, barley, rice, and maize yield progress were positive in all EU regions except Western Europe (WE), barley in Southern Europe (SE) and wheat in Northern Europe (NE). Stagnated wheat, barley and rice yields in WE were not explained by temperature or rainfall using direct correlations of observed data. However, May and July temperatures were associated with wheat yields in NE (−0.30 Tha−1°C−1), barley in SE (−0.14 Tha−1°C−1) and maize in WE and SE (−0.42 and −0.39 Tha−1°C−1). With increasing temperatures becoming less than optimal for photosynthesis, reducing grain filling duration and increasing drought episodes, crop yields have stagnated for wheat in NE and barley in SE. With consistent increases in temperature and water evaporative demand expected in the future, the interplay among genetic adaptation, increased crop cycle duration, drought tolerance, sowing dates, smart irrigation and sustainable practices may require thorough regional testing to maximise the yields of wheat, barley and maize in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maize and millet are the other major cereal grains grown worldwide along with wheat grains and their incorporation in products prepared solely with wheat flours can alter nutritional and sensorial attributes of products positively. Present study has been designed to develop multigrain muffins by utilizing wheat, maize and millet in different proportions i.e., T0 (100% wheat flour), T1 (80% wheat flour, 10% maize and millet flour each), T2 (60% wheat flour, 20% maize and millet flour each), T3 (40% wheat flour, 30% maize and millet flour each), T4 (20% wheat flour, 40% maize and millet flour each), T5 (50% maize and millet flour each), T6 (100% maize flour) and T7 (100% millet flour) treatments have been prepared and investigated for their nutritional profile and sensorial characteristics (performa evaluated on 9 points Hedonic scale). Moreover, storage study of the products was carried on 0, 10, 20 and 30th day of preparation. Data has been collected and subjected to twoway ANOVA by using software Statistics 8.1. The overall mean values for crude protein (6.97%) and crude fiber (1.17%) contents proved to be improved in T3. On the other hand, T3 proved to be good in attaining best sensory scores in aroma and texture. Overall acceptability of T3 remained in good condition on average basis throughout storage period of muffins. So, it has been concluded that using wheat flour in combination with the maize flour and millet flour not only improves the nutritional profile of products but also the sensorial attributes. This product would be a valuable healthy addition in the market for consumers if studied further for launching and commercialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Nicotianamine (NA), 2′-deoxymugineic acid (DMA), and mugineic acid (MA) are chelators required for iron uptake and transport in plants. Nicotianamine aminotransferase (NAAT), 2′-deoxymugineic acid synthase (DMAS), transporter of MAs (TOM), and efflux transporter of NA (ENA) are involved in iron uptake and transport in rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and barley (Hordeum vulgare); however, these families have not been fully identified and comprehensively analyzed in maize (Zea mays L.). Results: Here, we identified 5 ZmNAAT, 9 ZmDMAS, 11 ZmTOM, and 2 ZmENA genes by genome mining. RNA-sequencing and quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that these genes are expressed in various tissues and respond differently to high and low iron conditions. In particular, iron deficiency stimulated the expression of ZmDMAS1, ZmTOM1, ZmTOM3, and ZmENA1. Furthermore, we determined protein subcellular localization by transient expression of green fluorescent protein fusions in maize mesophyll protoplasts. ZmNAAT1, ZmNAAT-L4, ZmDMAS1, and ZmDMAS-L1 localized in the cytoplasm, whereas ZmTOMs and ZmENAs targeted to plasma and tonoplast membranes, endomembranes, and vesicles. Conclusions: Our results suggest that the different gene expression profiles and subcellular localizations of ZmNAAT, ZmDMAS, ZmTOM, and ZmENA family members may enable specific regulation of phytosiderophore metabolism in different tissues and under different external conditions, shedding light on iron homeostasis in maize and providing candidate genes for breeding iron-rich maize varieties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endophytic bacteria are those that colonise the internal tissues of plant without negative impact on plant health. This work aims to isolate the endophytic bacteria colonising Triticum vulgare and Phragmites australis and evaluate their compatibility as biostimulants to maize. Three of the six obtained isolates were selected upon their surpassing ability to stimulate the growth of maize seedlings (maximum of 18% increase in germination and 2.4-fold increase in the number of lateral roots). These isolates were molecularly identified as Klebsiella MK2R2, Bacillus B2L2 and Enterobacter E1S2. The response of maize seedlings to the combined effect of these isolates revealed that Bacillus B2L2, containing treatments, surpassed the other treatments in growth vigour parameters and upon this result these treatments were applied in a field experiment either alone or in combination with 100% N fertilisation. Maize plants, inoculated with Klebsiella MK2R2 and Bacillus B2L2 either alone or in combination with Enterobacter E1S2 in the presence of urea, surpassed significantly other treatments as the weight of ear increased almost two times and the number of grains increased 1.8 times compared to the control values. It could be concluded that the obtained strains are compatible biostimulants to maize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to trace the after-effect of soil and leaf herbicides applied in maize on the next crop in rotation - wheat. In a 4-year period were carried out field experiments. The efficacy and selectivity of herbicides in maize were traced. Visual observations of plants of wheat were conducted during various phenological phases of the crop: germination, first leaf displayed (BBCH-11), two leaves displayed (BBCH-12), tillering (BBCH-20), lactic maturity (BBCH-77). Manifestations of phytotoxicity on the wheat plants were not established. After-effect of the herbicides was traced and the formation of major quantitative traits: plant height, length of classes, number of classes, number of grains in the class and weight of grain in the class. By variance analysis of pooled data were analyzed signs and evidenced the differences compared to the untreated control. The differences between the variatns with treatment and the control are essential. This confirms the visual assessments about the lack of negative after-effect of Laudis OD, Lumax 538 SC, Elumis, Gardoprim plus Gold 500 SC, Wing P, Stellar, Casper 55 VG and Merlin flex, applied in maize, on the next crop in rotation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To evaluate the nutrient profile and marketing techniques (MT) of processed wheat and maize foods (PWMF) sold in food retail outlets of Mexico City. Materials and methods. We collected information on nutrient content and MT for PWMF across twelve food categories from 58 retail outlets in high and low income areas of Mexico City. Results. Roughly 8.5% and 10.7% of PWMF, in low and high income areas were healthy, respectively. The =12% of PWMF were healthy, except for flours (~33%) and pastas (=95%). Across both income areas, 28.3%-31.9% of WMPF employed characters, 46.5%-50.1% promotions and 38.2%- 41.3% claims. A significant association (p<0.001) was found between the use of MT and unhealthy PWMF in both areas. Conclusion. The majority of PWMF available in the food retail sector were considered unhealthy, which were being more offered in low income areas. Across income areas, the majority of unhealthy WMPF employed MT to encourage consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of fluoride (F) on photosynthetic activity of maize and wheat plants were studied by analyzing chlorophyll a (Chl a) fluorescence induction kinetics. The results revealed that F affects the overall primary photochemistry by inhibiting the number of active reaction centres (RC) of Photosystem II (PSII). However, the efficiency of each of the active RC is not affected. As compared to wheat (C3 plant), photosynthesis of maize (C4 plant) was relatively more inhibited by F toxicity. Results from the present investigation strongly indicate that the most significantly changed Chl a fluorescence parameters could be used as an efficient tool for the diagnosis of F toxicity in maize. The present findings may be helpful to select suitable crops in F endemic areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins naturally contaminate plant - based food. Since organic production does not allow the use of synthetic pesticides in plant protection, many researchers state that organically produced foods are more contaminated with mycotoxins than conventional ones. In this regard, the aim of this study was to observe the content of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 and deoxynivalenol, as the most common mycotoxins, in organically and conventionally produced seeds of maize, spelt wheat and soya been during the 2015-2017 period. The HPLC/FLD and HPLC/DAD were used to determine the presence of aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol, respectively. The highest number of samples was not positive to the presence of these mycotoxins. Aflatoxin B1 (1.16 μg/kg) and deoxynivalenol (101.53 μg/kg) were detected only in the sample of organic maize harvested in 2015. Based on obtained results, no conclusion can be drawn on the effects of organic and conventional production on contents of mycotoxins in seeds of maize, spelt wheat and soya bean, and further long-term studies are required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India is one of the largest landmasses under crop cultivation with staple consumption of food security crops. Post green revolution (since 1967), there has been a steady March towards self-sustainability in food production. Though the general trends speak of an increase in crop yields, the detailed study on decade wise trends and fast approaching state of stagnation in crop yields is largely missing. The present manuscript is the first study examining the crop yield trends of three major food crops—wheat, rice, and maize across Indian states. The four types of regression models were fitted on the annual yield data from all the 29 Indian states over the period 1967–2017. The best-fit statistical models were chosen using the Akaike information criterion. Our results suggest that (1) Wheat yields in 13 Indian states, rice yields in eleven Indian states, and maize yields in six Indian states are now not improving. (2) The yields in ~ 76% of wheat harvested area (~ 18.5 million hectares), ~ 47% of rice harvested area (~ 19.5 million hectares), and ~ 18% of maize harvested area (~ 1.2 million hectares) are not improving for the recent decade. The detailed mapping of current crop yield trends across Indian states is the first step towards achieving a bigger goal of identifying the responsible factors affecting current crop yield trends and then identifying and recommending appropriate mitigation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein deficiency is one of the biggest nutritional problems in the developing countries. Soybean is the richest source of protein can be supplemented to traditional chapattis which is the staple food of majority of North Indians. Maize is now a days is well recognized for both its nutritional and health benefits, as it is a very good source of phytochemicals. Keeping this in mind, the present was conducted to study the acceptability and nutritional attributes of chapatti prepared using combination of wheat, maize and partially defatted salt treated soy dhal. Chapattis were prepared using raw unprocessed flour of wheat, maize and defatted salt treated soy flour and composite flour. The developed chapattis were analyzed for consumer acceptability. Nutritional analysis of unprocessed flours and developed chapattis was done for proximate composition, sugar, antinutrients and in-vitro protein and starch digestibility. The organoleptic evaluation of the developed chapattis revealed that they were acceptable in term of sensory parameters. The protein content of the developed chapatti was found to be 24%higher than the control whereas sugar content was similar to that of the control. The phytic acid and polyphenol contents of chapatti decreased significantly by 34 and 66% respectively, over the unprocessed composite flour (control), which in turn significantly improved the in vitro protein (4.4%) and starch digestibility (27.7%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of different measures within maize cropping technology, aimed to suppress weeds as a part of integrated weed management (IWM) system, are analysed and evaluated in this manuscript, in line with the results of longterm experiments. For sustainable maize (Zea mays L.) production, implementation of IWM system aiming to reduce reliance on chemical weed control within Europe is a key priority. This IWM system includes all possible solutions, such as preventive, direct, biological, mechanical and alternative measures. A cropping system approach is essential to manage weeds, utilize genetic potential of maize genotypes and reduce yield losses due to weed competition. Long-term experiments are nowadays rare, but they are an excellent and reliable method for comparing cropping systems regarding yield and reduction of weed infestation level. In the research program implemented at the Maize Research Institute Zemun Polje in Central Serbia, the effects of different cropping measures and their interactions as a part of IWMs were studied during ten years. Maize rotations with winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), combined with herbicide application, showed the best effect on weed biomass reduction, 92.1% and 92.2%, respectively. Winter wheat was a better preceding crop for maize than soybean, especially in combination with herbicides applied in recommended as well as in half of recommended rate. Intensification of soil tillage significantly reduced maize weed infestation, especially abundance of perennial species: Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.), Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.) and field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.). Other measures, such as type of fertilizer, maize row space and crop density, cover cropping and intercropping also affected weed biomass production in maize fields. Maize growing with reduced row spacing contributed to weed biomass reduction by 27.4%, while application of slow-release urea contributed to crop competitiveness. Weed biomass in sweet maize (Zea mays L. convar. saccharata) grown with common vetch as a cover crop was significantly reduced (48.5 g m-2) compared with the treatment without a cover crop (564.3 g m-2). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Plant RNA virus‐based guide RNA (gRNA) delivery has substantial advantages compared to that of the conventional constitutive promoter‐driven expression due to the rapid and robust amplification of gRNAs during virus replication and movement. To date, virus‐induced genome editing tools have not been developed for wheat and maize. In this study, we engineered a barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV)‐based gRNA delivery system for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/Cas9‐mediated targeted mutagenesis in wheat and maize. BSMV‐based delivery of single gRNAs for targeted mutagenesis was first validated in Nicotiana benthamiana. To extend this work, we transformed wheat and maize with the Cas9 nuclease gene and selected the wheat TaGASR7 and maize ZmTMS5 genes as targets to assess the feasibility and efficiency of BSMV‐mediated mutagenesis. Positive targeted mutagenesis of the TaGASR7 and ZmTMS5 genes was achieved for wheat and maize with efficiencies of up to 78% and 48%. Our results provide a useful tool for fast and efficient delivery of gRNAs into economically important crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Folates are indispensable co-factors for one-carbon metabolism in all organisms. In humans, suboptimal folate intake results in serious disorders. One promising strategy for improving human folate status is to enhance folate levels in food crops by metabolic engineering. In this study, we cloned two GmGCHI (GTP cyclohydrolase I) genes (Gm8gGCHI and Gm3gGCHI) and one GmADCS (aminodeoxychorismate synthase) gene from soybean, which are responsible for synthesizing the folate precursors pterin and p-aminobenzoate, respectively. We initially confirmed their functions in transgenic Arabidopsis plants and found that Gm8gGCHI increased pterin and folate production more than Gm3gGCHI did. We then co-expressed Gm8gGCHI and GmADCS driven by endosperm-specific promoters in maize and wheat, two major staple crops, to boost their folate metabolic flux. A 4.2-fold and 2.3-fold increase in folate levels were observed in transgenic maize and wheat grains, respectively. To optimize wheat folate enhancement, codon-optimized Gm8gGCHI and tomato LeADCS genes under the control of a wheat endosperm-specific glutenin promoter (1Dx5) were co-transformed. This yielded a 5.6-fold increase in folate in transgenic wheat grains (Gm8gGCHI +/ LeADCS +). This two-gene co-expression strategy therefore has the potential to greatly enhance folate levels in maize and wheat, thus improving their nutritional value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing amounts of crop residues are being returned to croplands. Understanding nitrogen (N) availability in crop residues under various N fertilization regimes is important in optimizing N management. Pot experiments were conducted to investigate the contribution, fate and residual effects of urea and maize residue-N using a 15N isotope technique. Four N regimes were tested: three basal–topdressing ratios of N applied as urea (100–0, 75–25, 50–50) and one basal application of 75% N as urea and 25% N as manure (75U+25M). An average of 31.4% wheat N uptake was derived from urea, 9.2% from maize residue, and 59.5% from the soil in the first season. During the growing stages of wheat, maize residue contributed 0.3–4.8% and 3.1–13.2% to soil mineral and microbial biomass N, respectively, and those originated from urea was 1.0–4.2% and 4.6–16.8%, respectively. Regarding the fate of urea and residue-N after the first season, 35.9% and 16.9% of urea-15N and residue-15N were recovered by wheat, 28.1% and 46.9% remained in the soil, and 36.0% and 36.2% were lost. The contribution of urea to crop N uptake and N recovery efficiency increased, while that of residue-N decreased with increasing proportion of topdressing N. Substituting 25% mineral N with manure decreased the urea-15N loss without negative effects on crop dry matter and N uptake. Residual urea-15N and maize residue-15N from the previous season contributed 3.9% and 3.0% to summer maize N uptake. Additionally, 29.3% of residue-15N remained in the soil after the second season, while only 18.6% of urea-15N remained. Our study suggests that fertilizer and crop residue are actively involved in soil N transformation and plant N nutrition, emphasizing the capacities of organic residues to sustainably supply nutrients. Considering the utilization of both N fertilizer and maize residue, we may suggest a 75–25 split in N fertilizer application, but more appropriate options need to be further assessed under different cropping systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyzed wheat and maize production, export and import in Romania in the period 2007-2016 in order to point out the main trends and factors which sustain the position of the country in the international trade. Index method, comparison method, export/production ratio, export/import ratio, gross exchange index have been determined to characterize efficiency of external trade. Maize and wheat production increased 2.8 times during the last decade, representing 50 % and respectively 38.5 % in cereal production. Romania comes on the 2nd position for maize and on the 5th position for wheat in the EU production. The production growth is due mainly to the large cultivated surface, 4.7 million ha, for these two cereals which represent 85 % of the cultivated area in Romania. But, with 4.1 tonnes maize and 3.9 tonnes wheat per ha, yield is by 42.39 % and respectively 26.22 % lower than the EU average. Romania exported 11 times more maize and 34 times more wheat during the last decade. Also, it imported less maize but more wheat mainly for re-export. Export/Production ratio increased from reached 0.32 for maize and 0.82 for wheat, and Export/Import ratio reached 7.78 for maize and 5.83 for wheat. Export and import value also had a high growth rate, while import had a decline, resulting a positive balance, and this under the decline of export price and increase of import price. As a conclusion, the production growth contributed to the development of export with a benefic effect on the trade balance and Romania's prestige and position as a cereal producer and exporter. To increase yield level, investments are required in new technologies ( machinery, irrigations, high production value hybrids and varieties, fertilization and plant protection). Also, farm size should be increased by joining in associative forms for a more efficient use of capital and human resources and increase economic efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resources are limited, thus improving resource use efficiency is a key objective for cereal-based cropping systems. This field study was carried out to quantify resource use efficiencies in selected C3 and C4 cereals under split nitrogen (N) application regimes. The study included the following treatments: six cereals (three C3: wheat, oat, and barley; and three C4: maize, millet, and sorghum) and four split N application regimes (NS1 = full amount of N at sowing; NS2 = half N at sowing + half N at first irrigation; NS3 = 1/3 N at sowing + 1/3 N at first irrigation +1/3 N at second irrigation; NS4 = 1/4 N at sowing + 1/4 N at first irrigation + 1/4 N at second irrigation + 1/4 N at third irrigation). Results revealed that C4 cereals out-yielded C3 cereals in terms of biomass production, grain yield, and resource use efficiencies (i.e., radiation use efficiency (RUE) and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE)), while splitting N into three applications proved to be a better strategy for all of the selected winter and summer cereals. The results suggest that C4 cereals should be added into existing cereal-based cropping systems and N application done in three installments to boost productivity and higher resource use efficiency to ensure food security for the burgeoning population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inter-annual crop yield variation is driven in large parts by climate variability, wherein the climate components of temperature and precipitation often play the biggest role. Nonlinear effects of temperature on yield as well as interactions among the climate variables have to be considered. Links between climate and crop yield variability have been previously studied, both globally and at regional scales, but typically with additive models with no interactions, or when interactions were included, with implications not fully explained. In this study yearly country level yields of maize, rice, soybeans, and wheat of the top producing countries were combined with growing season temperature and SPEI (standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index) to determine interaction and intensification effects of climate variability on crop yield variability during 1961–2014. For maize, soybeans, and wheat, heat and dryness significantly reduced yields globally, while global effects for rice were not significant. But because of interactions, heat was more damaging in dry than in normal conditions for maize and wheat, and temperature effects were not significant in wet conditions for maize, soybeans, and wheat. Country yield responses to climate variability naturally differed between the top producing countries, but an accurate description of interaction effects at the country scale required sub-national data (shown only for the USA). Climate intensification, that is consecutive dry or warm years, reduced yields additionally in some cases, however, this might be linked to spillover effects of multiple growing seasons. Consequently, the effect of temperature on yields might be underestimated in dry conditions: While there were no significant global effects of temperature for maize and soybeans yields for average SPEI, the combined effects of high temperatures and drought significantly decreased yields of maize, soybeans, and wheat by 11.6, 12.4, and 9.2%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tillage practices affect mechanical and hydrological characteristics of soil and subsequently the least limiting water range. This quality indicator under the wheat-maize system of northwest India has not been studied yet. The treatments included four tillage modes, namely conventional tillage, no-tillage without residue, no-tillage with residue, and deep tillage as well as three irrigation regimes based on the irrigation water and pan evaporation ratio i.e. 1.2, 0.9, and 0.6. The experiment was conducted in a split plot design with three replications. At the end of cropping system, the mean least limiting water range (m³ m-3) was found to be highest in deep tillage (0.26) and lowest in notillage without residue (0.15). The field capacity was a limiting factor for the upper range of the least limiting water range beyond soil bulk density 1.41 Mg m-3 and after that 10% air filled porosity played a major role. However, for the lower range, the permanent wilting point was a critical factor beyond soil bulk density 1.50 Mg m-3 and thereafter, the penetration resistance at 2 MPa becomes a limiting factor. Thus, deep tillage under compaction and no-tillage with residue under water stress is appropriate practice for achieving maximum crop and water productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fumonisins are considered among the important mycotoxins associated with human esophageal cancer and livestock diseases. These mycotoxins are mainly produced by Fusarium verticillioides in tropical and subtropical regions such as the Philippines and Egypt and humid temperate regions of the world. The classical taxonomy of fumonisin-producing fungi is challenging, and species-specific PCR reactions are commonly used to clearly identify species within these complexes. The aim of tills study was to isolate, identify and quantify fumonisin-producing species in maize, wheat and soil samples from Egypt and the Philippines, and to test Eppendorf-Agar as a long term preservation method. We isolated 44 single spore isolates β9 from Egypt and five from the Philippines) from the collected samples (25 isolates from maize, five from wheat and 14 from soil). In addition, we quantified the content of fumonisin-producing fungi DNA from 15 maize samples and six wheat samples from Egypt, and from six maize samples from the Philippines, morphological and microscopic identification indicated that 21 isolates from Egypt and five from the Philippines were F. verticillioides, one isolate was F. proliferation and two isolates were F. nygamai. Molecular identification indicated that all these isolates belonged to F. verticillioides. Most were from maize, four were from soil and only one was from wheat. Other Fusarium species isolated included F. oxyspo-rum and F. solani. No F. graminearum isolates were found. The quantitative PCR (qPCR) results obtained using the Taqfum-2f, Vpgen-3R primer pair and the FUMp probe for quantification of fumonisin-producing Fusarium species showed that fumonisin-producing Fusarium isolates were present in four maize samples from the Philippines and eight maize samples from Egypt. The Fusarium DNA levels from fumonisin-producing isolates were in the range of 13 × 10-3 to 61 × 10-1 ng ng-1 total DNA in positive samples, except in one maize sample from the Philippines with high concentration of >0.5 ng ng-1 total DNA. This indicates that >50 % of all DNA was Fusarium DNA. No fumonisin-producing Fusarium DNA was detected in the wheat samples and in the remaining maize samples. These results showed that PCR-techniques based on qPCR can be used to identify fumonisin-producing Fusarium species and quantify risks of mycotoxin contaminated grains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gut bacteria may influence obesity through the metabolites produced by dietary fiber fermentation (mainly, short-chain fatty acids [SCFA]). Five cereal grain samples (wheat, rye, maize [corn], rice, and oats) were subjected to in vitro digestion and fermentation using fecal samples from 10 obese and nine normal weight people. No significant differences in total SCFA production between the normal weight and obese groups were observed [279 (12) vs. 280 (12), mean (standard error), respectively; P=.935]. However, the obese microbiota resulted in elevated propionate production compared with that of normal weight [24.8(2.2) vs. 17.8(1.9), respectively; P=.008]. Rye appeared to be particularly beneficial among grain samples due to the lowest propionate production and highest butyrate production during fermentation. These data suggest that the dietary fibers from cereal grains affect bacterial metabolism differently in obese and normal weight classes and that certain grains may be particularly beneficial for promoting gut health in obese states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere has exposed us to the potential warming and its adverse effects on agriculture. The present study deals with the impact of climate change on winter wheat and maize using the Infocrop model. Simulation studies were performed for different timeperiods using HADCM3 factors at four centres located in three different agroecological zones, with prevalent management practices. The results showed that under changed climate, wheat yield decreased whereas the yield of winter maize increased due to warmer winters and enhanced CO2 compared to baseline. Duration of both the crops has decreased owing to the higher temperatures during the growing period. The increase in yield of winter maize points to the suitability of the region for its cultivation in future. Further, increase in maize cultivation in locations with poor wheat yield could well be considered as an adaptation option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Filed experiments were conducted during 2004-2006 in maize (Zea mays L.) wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cropping sequence to study the effect of application of P fertilizer along with P solubilizing microorganisms on yield, P response and nutrient availability in an alkaline soil Typic Haplustept. The results revealed that the grain yield significantly increased with the application of fertilizer. Highest grain yield was recorded with the inoculation of VAM in combination with SPP @ 30 kg P2O5 ha-1 in maize and PSB along with RP @30 kg P2O5 ha-1in wheat crop. Higher yield response was found to be (141.3%) in maize and (127.5% ) wheat with the application of 30 kg P2O5 ha-1 + VAM, whereas P use efficiency was highest with the inoculation of VAM along with 30 kg P2O5ha-1 in maize (32.7 kg grain kg-1P2O5) and wheat (34.3 kg grain kg-1P2O5). A significant improvement in organic carbon and available N and P was also observed with the combined use of SSP and VAM or rock phosphate and P solubilizing microorganisms. The results indicated that inoculation of biofertilizers in combination with limited doses of rock phosphate or SSP produced higher and sustainable crop yields, maintained the soil health and reduced the P fertilizer cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sorghum prolamins, termed kafirins, are categorized into subgroups α, β, and γ. The kafirins are co-translationally translocated to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where they are assembled into discrete protein bodies that tend to be poorly digestible with low functionality in food and feed applications. As a means to address the issues surrounding functionality and digestibility in sorghum, we employed a biotechnology approach that is designed to alter protein body structure, with the concomitant synthesis of a co-protein in the endosperm fraction of the grain. Wherein perturbation of protein body architecture may provide a route to impact digestibility by reducing disulphide bonds about the periphery of the body, while synthesis of a co-protein, with known functionality attributes, theoretically could impact structure of the protein body through direct association and/or augment end-use applications of sorghum flour by stabilizing ß-sheet formation of the kafirins in sorghum dough preparations. This in turn may improve viscoelasticity of sorghum dough. To this end, we report here on the molecular and phenotypic characterizations of transgenic sorghum events that are down-regulated in γ- and the 29-kDa α-kafirins and the expression of a wheat Dy10/Dx 5 hybrid high-molecular weight glutenin protein. The results demonstrate that down-regulation of γ-kafirin alone does not alter protein body formation or impacts protein digestibility of cooked flour samples. However, reduction in accumulation of a predicted 29-kDa α-kafirin alters the morphology of protein body and enhances protein digestibility in both raw and cooked samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: A field experiment was conducted where maintenance of indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal populations was attempted using AM host cover crops arranged temporally or spatially during growth of nonmycorrhizal crops. Methods: To arrange AM hosts temporally, sunflower or oat was grown as a cover crop after non-host cropping (cabbage) or fallowing. In order to arrange AM hosts spatially, red clover, white clover or vetch was intercropped during growth of non-host cabbage. Results: The AM colonization and growth of maize with previously introduced sunflower or oat were much greater than those without introduction of cover crops or those with introduction of non-host cover crops. The AM colonization and yield of winter wheat grown after cabbage with AM host intercropping were greater than those after cabbage only cropping, suggesting that arrangement of AM hosts between cabbage rows is effective for maintaining the AM fungal population in soil during non-host cropping. Conclusions: Mycorrhizal hosts cropped after or during non-host cropping is an effective means to increase indigenous AM fungal populations. The results show that AM colonization, P uptake and productivity of crops after cultivation of nonmycorrhizal crops can be improved by arranging AM hosts temporally or spatially as cover crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are free-living soil-borne bacteria that colonize the rhizosphere and have great importance in governing the functional property of terrestrial ecosystems. In this study, rhizospheric bacteria were isolated from maize and wheat and screened for their plant growth promoting activities. These isolates were identified as Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Azospirillum and Azotobacter species. All isolates were tested for their indole acetic acid (IAA) production ability. All isolates produce the varying amounts of IAA ranging from 0.6-2.7 μg/ml. The highest concentration of IAA was produced by bacterial strain Bacillus subtilis AK31. A series of growth pouch and pot experiments were conducted to study the effect of bacterial inoculants on the growth of maize and wheat. It was concluded that IAA plays a key role in the growth promotion of roots in maize and wheat in growth pouch study. In maize, isolate AK1, AK21, AK31 and AK8 showed high indole acetic acid (6.86, 7.11, 7.11 and 7.36 pmol/ml, respectively) and root elongation activity (4.10, 5.00, 5.00 and 3.80 cm, respectively) after 96h of growth. In wheat, bacterial strains AK31, AK2, AK14, AK32 and AK15 showed high IAA (6.59, 5.66, 5.35, 7.53 and 5.66 pmol/ml, respectively) and root elongation (6.07, 4.00, 5.20, 6.90 and 5.20 cm, respectively) activity after 96h of growth. In pot experiments, Bacillus sp. AK21, Bacillus subtilis AK31, Azotobacter diazotrophicus AK14, Microbacterium sp. AK19 and Pseudomonas fluorescens AK32 showed effective results in terms of increase in root and shoot dry weight in maize (123, 130, 121, 120, 124g and 116, 126, 116, 114, 120g/pot, respectively) and wheat (130, 135, 125, 118, 140g and 105, 106, 110, 102, 110g/pot, respectively), in comparison to controls of maize and wheat crops. Thus, it might be concluded that PGPR strains AK21, AK31, AK14, AK19 and AK32 could be used as crop-enhancer and bio-fertilizer for production of maize and wheat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using an alkaline calcareous soil, experiments were conducted to elucidate the effects of nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD) on the fate of N-labelled urea applied to cotton, maize, and wheat under greenhouse conditions. Combined effects of DCD and two levels of wheat straw (applied to cotton) and of fertilizer application method (conventional broadcast vs. point injection in maize and wheat) on the recovery of the fertilizer N were also studied. High soil temperatures prevailed under cotton and maize, whereas the soil temperature was relatively moderate during the wheat growing season. The fertilizer N loss under cotton was lowest (44% of the applied) when urea was applied alone; the loss increased due to DCD (54%) or wheat straw (50-54%) and was highest (63-64%) when DCD and wheat straw were applied together. Under maize also, DCD increased the loss of the fertilizer N applied by the conventional method (51% without DCD vs. 66% with DCD) or by point injection (26% without DCD vs. 42% with DCD). With the conventional method under wheat, DCD had no effect on the fertilizer N loss (34-37% of the applied). The fertilizer N loss under wheat was least (16%) when urea solution was point-injected but increased (24-26%) due to DCD or/and when pH of the urea solution was reduced to 2. Besides, DCD significantly reduced the fertilizer N uptake and increased the fertilizer N immobilization in soil under cotton and maize. However, DCD applied in combination with a higher level of wheat straw significantly increased the cotton dry matter and N yields due to increased N availability from sources other than the fertilizer. The results suggested that the use of DCD may not be beneficial in alkaline calcareous soils and that point injection of urea solution without any amendment is more effective in conserving the fertilizer N as compared to the conventional broadcast method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Croplands mainly act as net sources of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO) and nitrous oxide (NO), as well as nitrogen oxide (NO), a precursor of troposheric ozone. We determined the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) balance of a four-year crop rotation, including maize, wheat, barley and mustard, to provide a base for exploring mitigation options of net emissions. The crop rotation had a positive net ecosystem production (NEP) of 4.4 ± 0.7 Mg C ha y but represented a net source of carbon with a net biome production (NBP) of -1.3 ± 1.1 Mg C ha y. The nitrogen balance of the rotation was correlated with the carbon balance and resulted in net loss (−24 ± 28 kg N ha y). The main nitrogen losses were nitrate leaching (−11.7 ±1.0 kg N ha y) and ammonia volatilization (−9 kg N ha y). Dry and wet depositions were 6.7 ± 3.0 and 5.9 ±0.1 kg N ha y, respectively. Fluxes of nitrous (NO) and nitric (NO) oxides did not contribute significantly to the N budget (NO: -1.8 ± 0.04; NO: -0.7 ± 0.04 kg N ha y) but NO fluxes equaled 16% of the total greenhouse gas balance. The link between the carbon and nitrogen balances are discussed. Longer term experiments would be necessary to capture the trends in the carbon and nitrogen budgets within the variability of agricultural ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Political and economic arguments underlie the focus on cellulosic ethanol production as a preferred process for meeting future renewable fuel demand. Cellulosic ethanol production requires large volumes of the biomass input, adding logistical challenges to the feasibility of the technology. The objective of this research is to evaluate the profitability of a field-to-refinery model developed to identify optimal harvest, storage, transportation, pretreatment, and refining activities for a study area in Northeastern North Dakota. Sensitivity analysis indicates profitability of the ethanol complex is marginal under current prices and anticipated technologies. However, increases in ethanol prices and reduced conversion costs to produce ethanol from herbaceous crop residues suggest future viability of the process. Finally, development of a viable livestock feeding industry using some or all of the AFEX-pretreated crop residue increases the profitability of harvesting crop residues for further use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The texture of maize ( Zea mays L.) seeds is important to seed processing properties, and soft dent maize is preferred for both wet-milling and livestock feed applications. The puroindoline genes ( Pina and Pinb) are the functional components of the wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) Hardness locus and together function to create soft grain texture in wheat. The PINs (PINA and PINB) are believed to act by binding to lipids on the surface of starch granules, preventing tight adhesion between starch granules and the surrounding protein matrix during seed maturation. Here, maize kernel structure and wet milling properties were successfully modified by the endosperm-specific expression of wheat Pins ( Pina and Pinb). Pins were introduced into maize under the control of a maize γ- Zein promoter. Three Pina/Pinb expression positive transgenic lines were evaluated over two growing seasons. Textural analysis of the maize seeds indicated that the expression of PINs decreased adhesion between starch and protein matrix and reduced maize grain hardness significantly. Reduction in pressure required to fracture kernels ranged from 15.65% to 36.86% compared with control seeds. Further, the PINs transgenic maize seeds had increased levels of extractable starch as characterized by a small scale wet milling method. Starch yield was increased by 4.86% on average without negatively impacting starch purity. The development of softer maize hybrids with higher starch extractability would be of value to maize processors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) aims to genetically enhance both crops and generate public sector-provided products for the resource poor, e.g., drought tolerant wheat and insect resistant maize, and through international–national partnerships facilitate the acquisition of improved germplasm for non-mandate crops in the cropping systems where maize and wheat thrives; e.g., GM-papaya through a national food security undertaking in Bangladesh. The Center also engages in public awareness campaigns in projects such as Insect Resistance Maize for Africa (IRMA), which includes food, feed and environmental safety, monitoring of resistance and establishment of refugia, non-target effects and gene flow. Monitoring of genetic resources is a wide concern among the centers of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), with an emphasis on the quality of gene banks. Decisions, policies and procedures about monitoring should be science-based, and this requires education, an area where CIMMYT and other CGIAR centers can play an important role. There will be a need to continue to evaluate the need for, and type of monitoring, as new (and unique) products are developed and released in the emergent economies of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Permanent raised bed planting with crop residue retention is a form of conservation agriculture that has been proposed as an alternative to conventional tillage for wheat production systems in the Central Highlands of Mexico. A field experiment comparing permanent and tilled raised beds with different residue management under rainfed conditions was started at El Batán (State of Mexico, Mexico) in 1999. The percentage of small and large macroaggregates and mean weight diameter (MWD) was significantly larger in permanent raised beds compared to conventionally tilled raised beds both with full crop residue retention (average for maize and wheat), while the percentages free microaggregates was lower. The percentages of small and large macroaggregates and mean weight diameter (MWD) was significantly larger in permanent raised beds with residue retention compared to permanent raised beds with removal of the residue (average for maize and wheat), while the percentages free microaggregates and silt and clay fraction was lower. Cultivation of maize significantly reduced the large macroaggregates, while wheat reduced the silt and clay fraction (average over all systems). Cultivation of maize reduced the C and N content of the free microaggregates compared to soil cultivated with wheat, while removal of plant residue reduced the C and N content of the silt and clay fraction compared to soil where residue was retained. The C and N content of the coarse particulate organic matter (cPOM) and microaggregates within the macroaggregates was significantly larger in permanent raised beds compared to conventionally tilled raised beds both with full residue retention, while C and N content of the cPOM was significantly lower when residue was removed or partially removed compared to the soil where the residue was retained. The δ 13C ‰ signatures of the macroaggregates, microaggregates, the silt and clay fraction, cPOM and microaggregates within the macroaggregates were not affected by tillage or residue management when wheat was the last crop, but removal of residue reduced the δ 13C ‰ signatures of the macro-, microaggregates and microaggregates within the macroaggregates significantly compared to soil where the residue was retained. Retaining only 30–50% of the organic residue still improved the soil structure considerably compared to plots where it was removed completely. Permanent raised beds without residue retention, however, is a practice leading to soil degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparative genetic analysis has shown that different plant species often share orthologous genes for very similar functions, especially for cereal crops. In this study, we focused on analyzing the utility of EST-SSR markers among monocots in silico and by experiment. Based on 423,611 wheat ESTs, 101,299 were found to express commonly in rice, maize and barley ESTs, which accounted for 23.94% of wheat EST data. 1707 SSR-containing ESTs (SSR-ESTs) were mined from the 101,299 homologous ESTs, which accounted for 8.8% of all the 19,434 wheat EST-SSRs. It showed that the number of homologous SSR-ESTs much less than the homologous ESTs among grasses. The number of conserved ESTs and SSR-ESTs were inversely proportional to the evolutionary distance among species. Although these SSR-ESTs were in high similarity, the number of conserved SSRs between wheat and the other three crops decreased with the increased aligning regions, and only 13 types of SSR motifs in 21 ESTs were obtained by aligning sequences over a stretch of more than 40 bp. The variation at a microsatellite came from not only the differences in the numbers of repeat units and its location shift, but also base mutations flanking microsatellite repeats. From the 428 uni-SSR-ESTs universally in the four cereals, 243 primers were designed and tested in two genotypes of each species. 154 (63.4%) primers produced clear amplicons across the four species, which showed a high efficient transferability of wheat EST-SSR markers to the other three cereal crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very often, the accuracy of quantitative analytical methods for the determination of mycotoxins by liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spectrometry (MS) and LC-MS/MS is limited by matrix effects during the ionization process in the MS source. Stable isotope labeled standards are best suited to correct for matrix effects and to improve both the trueness and the precision of analytical methods employing LC-MS and LC-MS/MS. This paper describes the successful use of fully 13C isotope labeled deoxynivalenol [(13C15)DON] as an internal standard (IS) for the accurate determination of DON in maize and wheat by LC electrospray ionization MS/MS. To show the full potential of (13C15)DON as IS, maize and wheat extracts were analyzed without further cleanup. Subsequent to calibration for the LC-MS end determination, DON was quantified in matrix reference materials (wheat and maize). Without consideration of the IS, apparent recoveries of DON were 29±6% ( n=7) for wheat and 37±5% ( n=7) for maize. However, the determination of DON in the reference materials yielded 95±3% (wheat) and 99±3% (maize) when (13C15)DON was used as an IS for data evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using an alkaline calcareous soil, pot experiments were conducted to elucidate the effects of NHvs. NOnutrition (50 or 100 mg kg−1 soil) of wheat and maize on microbial activity in the rhizosphere and bulk soils. Dicyandiamide was used as nitrification inhibitor to maintain NHas the predominant N source for plants grown in NH-treated soil. While maize grew equally well on both N sources, root and shoot growth of wheat was higher under NHthan under NOnutrition. Bacterial population density on roots, but not in the rhizosphere soil, was higher under NHthan under NO supplied at 150 mg N kg−1 soil; whereas at both N levels applied, NHcompared to NOnutrition of wheat and maize significantly increased microbial biomass in the rhizosphere soil. Under both plant species, NH vs. NOnutrition also increased aerobic and anaerobic respiration, and dehydrogenase activity in the rhizosphere. As microbial activity in the planted bulk and unplanted soils was hardly affected by the N-source, we hypothesize that the stimulation by NHof the rhizosphere microbial activity was probably due to higher availability of root exudates under NH than under NOnutrition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fusarium graminearumis the causal agent of the Fusarium head blight (FHB) and a destructive pathogen of cereals accounting for high grain yield losses especially on wheat and maize. Like other fungal pathogens,F. graminearumsecretes various extracellular enzymes, which are hypothesized to be involved in host infection. Extracellular lipolytic activity ofF. graminearumwas strongly induced in culture by wheat germ oil; this allowed us to isolate, clone, and characterize a gene (FGL1) encoding a secreted lipase. Expression analysis indicated thatFGL1is induced by lipid-containing substrates and repressed by glucose.In planta,FGL1transcription was detected 1 day post-infection of wheat spikes. The function of theFGL1gene product was verified by specifically demonstrating lipase activity after expression in a heterologous host. Ebelactone B, a known lipase inhibitor, repressed the lipolytic activity of the enzyme. Disease severity was strongly reduced when wild-type conidia were supplemented with ebelactone B. Transformation-mediated disruption ofFGL1led to reduced extracellular lipolytic activity in culture and to reduced virulence to both wheat and maize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Doubled haploid (DH) lines are important in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) breeding, and haploids produced via maize pollination precede DH line development. Although maize pollination has proven reliable and broadly applicable to wheat, its success is determined by the wheat and maize genotypes employed. A wheat genotype consisting of nuclear and cytoplasm components predisposing it to parthenogenesis was compared with three other genotypes, each possessing only one or neither component necessary for parthenogenesis. In a glasshouse experiment, each genotype was pollinated with maize and subsequently treated with a 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D) solution to determine if parthenogenesis affected embryo formation frequency (EFF) and haploid formation efficiency (HFE). Wheat genotypes were also treated with the 2,4-D solution alone to determine if embryos and haploid plants could be produced in vivo without maize pollination. `Salmon(K)', a parthenogenetic genotype consisting of a Salmon 1BL.1RS nucleus in a Ae. kotschyii cytoplasm, had a mean EFF of 32%; whereas, the non-parthenogenetic genotypes had mean EFF calculations ranging from 7 to 21%. Mean HFE for Salmon(K) was not significantly different than the mean HFE for non-parthenogenetic Salmon; however, EFF and HFE calculations for Salmon(K) and Salmon, each with a 1BL.1RS translocation, were generally higher than calculations for genotypes without the translocation. Salmon(K) was the only genotype to produce a 3% or higher EFF and HFE after treatment with 2,4-D alone. Parthenogenesis significantly affected the frequency at which embryos were produced after pollination with maize and the frequency at which embryos and haploid plants were produced after treatment with 2,4-D alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although wheat and maize are the major economically important cereal crops and staple food sources in the world, their productivity is highly affected by excess salts in soil (salinity). Applications of multifarious halophilic plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in saline soil protect the plants from osmotic damages and promote plant growth through the secretion of plant growth promoting (PGP) and osmolytes. In this study, Klebsiella variicola SURYA6—a PGPR—was evaluated for plant-growth-promotion and salinity amelioration in wheat and maize, and enrichment of soil nutrients. The results of the present study revealed that K. variicola SURYA6 grows luxuriously under high salinity stress conditions and produces copious amounts of three principal salinity ameliorating traits, such as 1 aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase (ACCD), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), exopolysaccharides (EPS), and osmolytes—such as proline, sugars, proteins, and amino acids. The isolate also exhibited sensitivity to a wide range of antibiotics, lack of hemolytic ability, and absence of catalase and oxidase activities confirming its nonpathogenic nature. Inoculation of wheat and maize seeds with this multifarious strain, improved the physicochemical properties of soil, improved seed germination by 33.9% and 36.0%, root length by 111.0%, 35.1%, shoot height by 64.8% and 78.9%, and chlorophyll content by 68.4% and 66.7% in wheat and maize seedlings, respectively, at 45 days after sowing (DAS) under salinity stress. The improvement in plant growth can be correlated with the secretion of PGP traits and improved, uptake of minerals such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg). While amelioration of salinity can be the result of secretion of osmolytes and the change in pH from salinity to neutrality. This inoculation also significantly improved the soil nutrients under salinity stress conditions. Inoculation of K. variicola SURYA6, resulted in more improved growth and nutrients contents in plants and enriched soil nutrients under salinity stress as compared to normal (non-saline) conditions. Such multifarious strain can serve as a potent bio-inoculant for growth promotion of wheat and maize in saline soil. However, multi-year field trials under different agro-climatic conditions are required to confirm the bio-efficacy of K. variicola SURYA6. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

summary: The effect of ammonium and nitrate nutrition on maize and wheat grown hydroponically and salinity stressed was assessed from measurements of growth rate and gas exchange. In both maize and wheat the ammonium‐grown plains were much more sensitive to salinity toxicity than nitrate‐grown plants particularly when exposed to 60–80 mM salinity. Shoot growth was retarded to a far greater extent than root growth in salinity‐stressed plants of both wheat and maize with either nitrogen source. There was no significant decrease of photosynthetic rate in salinity‐stressed plants of either species fed nitrate or ammonium, except in severely wilted plants of both species fed nitrate or ammonium at the highest (80 mM) salinity concentration. The same was true for stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and transpiration ratio (water use efficiency). In nitrate‐fed wheat, raising the calcium concentration from 2 to 12 mM in the presence of 60 mM salinity produced an 11% increase in growth. This effect is ascribed to improved nitrate uptake due to calcium protection of the nitrate transporter and was not evident in ammonium‐grown wheat. Possible reasons for the differential effects of ammonium and nitrate nutrition are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that disruption of the macrostructure of a previously zero-tilled soil is capable of reducing vesicular arbuscular (VA) mycorrhizal infection to a degree such that phosphorus (P) absorption is reduced. Undisturbed soil cores (within plastic cylinders) were excavated from long-term, zero-tilled plots. Soil removed from these plots, which was first subjected to structurally disruptive forces and then packed into identical cylinders, formed the disturbed comparisons. Maize (Zea mays L.), wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.), spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.) or rape (Brassica napus L.) were grown in the cores and P and zinc (Zn) absorption patterns monitored. Soil disturbance significantly reduced P and Zn absorption by maize grown in soil originating from three sites differing in local geography and/or texture Disturbance also reduced mycorrhizal infection in the three soils. A significant effect of disturbance upon the VA mycorrhizal infection of both maize and wheat roots (both mycorrhizal) and also upon the P absorption by these species was observed. None was found with respect to spinach and rape comparisons (non-mycorrhizal). Injection of benomyl, a potent inhibitor of mycorrhizal fungi, into the soil surface significantly reduced the influence of soil disturbance upon P absorption. No significant differences were found in VA mycorrhizal infection within fungicide-treated cores. We accepted our hypothesis based upon the above evidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, ten Fusarium toxins were analysed in wheat and maize commodities from Albania. In total, 71 samples of wheat and 45 samples of maize were collected from different producing regions. The analytical procedure consisted of a simple one-step sample extraction followed by the determination of toxins using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Fusarium toxins were found in 23% of the analysed wheat samples and in 78% of maize samples. In maize samples, most often fumonisins B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2) were found. They were present in 76% of samples. They were detected in all positive samples except in one with concentrations ranging from 59.9 to 16,970 μg/kg. The sum of FB1 and FB2 exceeded the EU maximum permitted level (4000 μg/kg) in 31% of maize samples. In wheat samples, the only detected Fusarium mycotoxin was deoxynivalenol (DON), present in 23% of samples. In one sample with the concentration of 1916 μg/kg, the EU maximum permitted level (1250 μg/kg) was exceeded. This is the first report on the presence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize grains cultivated in Albania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]