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We investigated the role of labour in explaining the yield gap of cereals at both crop and farm levels on smallholder farms in Southern Ethiopia. A household survey containing detailed information of labour use at crop and farm level of ca. 100 farms in a maize-based system around Hawassa and ca. 100 farms in a wheat-based system around Asella was used for this purpose. Stochastic frontier analysis was combined with the principles of production ecology to decompose maize and wheat yield gaps. Actual maize and wheat yields were on average 1.6 and 2.6 t ha−1, respectively, which correspond to 23 and 26% of the water-limited yield (Yw) of each crop. For both crops, nearly half of the yield gap was attributed to the technology yield gap, indicating sub-optimal crop management to achieve Yw even for the farmers with the highest yields. The efficiency yield gap was ca. 20% of Yw for both crops; it was negatively associated with sowing date and with the proportion of women's labour used for sowing in the case of maize but with the proportion of hired labour used for sowing and weed control in the case of wheat. The resource yield gap was less than 10% of Yw for both crops due to small differences in input use between highest- and lowest-yielding farms. The contribution of capital and farm power availability to crop yields, input use and labour use was analysed at the farm level. Labour calendars showed that crops cultivated in Hawassa were complementary, with peak labour occurring at different times of the year. By contrast, crops cultivated in Asella competed strongly for labour during sowing, hand-weeding and harvesting months, resulting in potential trade-offs at farm level. Oxen ownership was associated with capital availability, but not farm power in Hawassa and with both capital availability and farm power in Asella. Farmers with more oxen applied more nitrogen (N) to maize in Hawassa and cultivated more land in Asella, which is indicative of an intensification pathway in the former and an extensification pathway in the latter. Differences in land:labour ratio and in the types of crops cultivated explained the different strategies used in the two sites. In both sites, although gross margin per unit area increased linearly with increasing crop yield and farm N productivity, gross margin per labour unit increased up to an optimal level of crop yield and farm N productivity after which no further response was observed. This suggests that narrowing the yield gap may not be economically rational in terms of labour productivity. We conclude that labour (and farm power) is not a major determinant of maize yield gaps in Hawassa, but is a major determinant of wheat yield gaps in Asella.

Mechanized farming is an indispensable part of modern agriculture. Bangladesh has managed to achieve significant progress in some components of farm mechanization i.e., irrigation and tillage. The majority of the agricultural operations are still being carried out with manual labor. This paper reports the status of agricultural machineries in the country while analyzing the historical policy changes towards intensive farm mechanization. The potential sectors requiring urgent attention for mechanization was also identified in this study. The manuscript discusses how mechanization could help ensure the food security of the country by maintaining timeliness of agricultural operation. Urgent introduction of mini-combined harvesters during COVID-19 pandemic was discussed as a commendable decision taken by the Government of Bangladesh. It also shows how the use of machine power is increasing in the country through custom hiring based ownership models of the machineries. Local manufacturing of agricultural machineries and spare parts was championed by the fact that small scale industries have developed in this sector. In line with this, we argued that the local companies should focus on precision manufacturing in the coming days. The manuscript also urged the need to include rural youth for sustainable farm mechanization process.

Animal can be very important for carrying domestic water and fuel, reducing drudgery (particularly for women) and reducing time that can be used in other productive or socially important tasks. Foods production, distribution and rural trade are also assisted through animal-powered transport (on-farm, marketing, riding, pack transport. Animal power can also be used for water-lifting, milling, logging and land excavation and road construction Animal power requires little or no foreign exchange. Money invested in animal power circulates within rural areas, helping to revitalize rural economies. While motorized power also brings many benefits, animal power is normally more available and affordable to people in rural areas and fragile environments. The use of farm animal traction is actually on the increased in many countries, it should be included in educational curricula in secondary schools, polytechnics and universities in Nigeria. Government agricultural activities mostly focused on tractor power. There is no need for increased effort towards animal traction since it is a more affordable farm power. The paper aimed at drawing the attention of Extension agents, researchers, decision-makers and teachers on the need to bring animal power topics to focus.

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Conservation agriculture (CA) aims to achieve sustainable and profitable agriculture and improve the livelihoods of farmers through the application of the three CA principles: minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover, and crop rotations. Conservation agriculture holds tremendous potential for all sizes of farms and agro-ecological systems, but its adoption is most urgently needed by smallholder farmers, especially those with poor quality soils and those facing acute farm labor shortages. Conservation agriculture combines profitable agricultural production with environmental concerns and sustainability and it has been proven to work in a variety of agroecological zones and farming systems. Its use has expanded rapidly on large mechanized land holdings and it is now starting to be adopted in increasing numbers by resource poor smallholders. This presentation provides an overview of what conservation agriculture farming systems are, opportunities and challenges associated with CA, and reviews their application and potential in developing countries, with particular emphasis placed on Africa where I have most experience.

Metadata only record This paper reviews the current conditions of conservation agriculture globally and its implication for mechanization of farming around the world. Included is a discussion of opportunities for technology development and important considerations for mechanization by smallholders in developing countries.

Journalist, Arthur Hawkesﾒ contribution to this issue is a second article on the farmer as warrior and statesman. Agricultural articles pertain to the use of electricity to enhance crops, instructions for creating a fungicide for potatoes, crossbreeding cattle with bison, and a summary of the tractor short course at the college. Other articles address the novels of Thomas Hardy, a description of a meatpacking house, and a reminiscence of building a log barn. The serialized wartime story titled "Apres la Guerre" is continued in this issue. Campus news features social events of the graduating classes. The Macdonald Institute column highlights a guest address by Mary Bollert regarding the problems of women's work. The Alumni column contains alumni and alumnae updates. The farmer as warrior and statesman The novels of Thomas Hardy The electrification of seeds Potato crop insurance The cattalo The packing house Raising a log barn The mail box Farm power Editorial "Apres la Guerre" College life Macdonald Athletics Alumni advertising

This issue's agricultural articles pertain to preparing agricultural exhibits of field crops, agricultural development in Northern Ontario, the advantages of precooling fruit for long distance shipping, sourcing seed potatoes from Prince Edward Island, and maintaining milking machines. Economic articles address the necessity for the farmer to maintain accurate farm accounts, the profitability of efficient factory management, and the possible addition of economics and history to the college curriculum. The farm power column continues the article on utilizing electricity on the farm. Campus news reports on the O. A. C. alumni picnic in Kent County. The Macdonald Institute column provides humorous entries about domestic life. While the Alumni column contains alumni updates, and a listing of all O. A. C. graduates who have surnames beginning with the letters "R" and "S". The preparation of field crop material for exhibition Kapuskasing and Northern Ontario Precooling Niagara fruit Farm accounts Efficient factory management Prince Edward Island as a source for seed potatoes Milking machines and their care Economics and history: should the present course be expanded Farm power A better Y. M. C. A. Editorial College life Macdonald Alumni advertising

This expanded Christmas issue begins with biographies of the Premier of Ontario and the President of the University of British Columbia. Agricultural articles include U. B. C.'s livestock industry, soil testing for bacteria, the O. A. C. sale of livestock, the Cabbage Root Maggot, livestock judging, and the evolution of farm machinery. European thematic articles address Flemish flax, plowing in England, and the Canadian Soldier Agriculturalists with the Khaki University. The first prize winners of The Review competition are printed in this issue. This includes an article on radiotelegraphy. Other articles pertain to the comedy of the "party line" on rural telephones, and the need to organize committees. Campus news highlights the Armistice Day and night festivities, athletic activities, banquets, and the Halloween Dance. The Macdonald Institute column provides additional details on the Armistice Day activities, and alumnae news. The Alumni column contains alumni updates and a listing of all O. A. C. graduates who have surnames beginning with the letters "G". Leadership E. C. Drury: farmer These Days are Great Life sketch of L. S. Klinck British Columbia's University and her live stock industry The Elemental Determination of bacteria present in the soil Comic economics: the rural telephone A Summer Day A much needed organization in process of formation The transmission and reception of signals by radiotelegraphy What Have You Done? O. A. C. sale of pure bred stock Opportunity Flax in Flanders Plowing by steam in England Canadian soldiers at the agricultural shows overseas Some notes on Chortophila Brassica Bouche The stock trips: how did you place 'em? The evolution of farm machinery and power Editorial Alumni Equality Macdonald College life Athletics advertising

Several articles in this summer issue focus on agricultural education in Canada and the United States. The agricultural articles in this issue pertain to the development and conformation of Holstein Friesian cattle, atmospheric temperature, small livestock in Europe, the problem of rural flight, and preparing vegetables for exhibition. There are reviews of fruit growing in the Annapolis Valley and horticulture on the Canadian Prairies. Farm improvement articles feature the work of a drainage surveyor and electric lighting. The president of Western University provided an article on academic freedom. The Macdonald Institute column contains nutrition articles on school lunches and salads. Forefront in the Alumni column is the creation of War Memorial Hall to commemorate the over one hundred O. A. C. men who did not return from World War 1. In this issue is a listing of all O. A. C. graduates who have a surname beginning with the letter "B". The Month of Ripeness The Holstein Friesian Agriculture as education Temperature of atmosphere Vocational agricultural education in Minnesota Trials and tribulations of a drainage surveyor Small livestock of England, France, Belgium, and Prussia A review of fruit growing in the Annapolis Valley Agricultural education in the United States "Horticulture in the Canadian North West" Thicker Than Water Academic freedom Conceit versus modesty The Review story competition "Rural Social Problem" "Passing Rich" Preparing vegetables for exhibition Farm power Editorial Alumni Macdonald College life Locals advertising

This issue begins the new school year with an address by the new college president, J. B. Reynolds. Agricultural articles include suggestions for the animal husbandry student, poultry conformation for egg production, milk production of Holstein and Ayrshire cattle, and mechanical tillage in the tropics. An article suggest how the community building aspects of prison camp theatre productions could be adapted to rural community amateur theatre. Students provide a travel diary of Prince Edward Island, and a short play regarding campus life. The serialized wartime story titled "Apres la Guerre" is continued in this issue. Campus news outlines changes on the campus, and a call for new students to participate in college activities. The Alumni column contains notes on the B. C. alumni and alumnae gathering, alumni updates, and a listing of all O. A. C. graduates who have surnames beginning with the letters "T", "U", and "V". This issue does not contain a Macdonald column. The old order changeth Helpful hints for the animal husbandry student Egg type conformation More amateur theatricals Rugby First impressions of the Island Province Over-heard on the campus Average production in Holsteins and Ayrshires September "Apres la Guerre" Farm power Departmental notes Editorial Alumni College life Athletics advertising

This issue's agricultural articles pertain to sending beef cattle to market early because of the grain shortage, tuberculin testing for cattle, potential for increasing the honey industry, the success of the farm power course, prospects for poultry and egg production in 1918, and plant breeding at the Vineland Experiment Station. Other articles include encouraging farmers to produce quality products, the Silver Black Fox industry, banana production in the tropics, the ornithology of winter birds, and agricultural education through motion pictures. A Macdonald Institute student contributed an article on designing the ideal kitchen. While the Query column answers agricultural queries send in by subscribers. The editorial comments on the dignity of the agriculturalist. Campus news provides a summary of the activities of each of the campus clubs, and results of the hockey and basketball games. The Macdonald column mentions the women's initiation and the success of the promenade. The Alumni column provides several military letters and alumni updates. Finished beef cattle The Silver Black Fox in captivity Tuberculosis of cattle and the tuberculin test What the Motion Picture Bureau hopes to do in Ontario agriculture Quality as well as quantity Possibilities of the honey industry in Ontario Farm power course The ideal kitchen The banana Winter birds Poultry and egg production for 1918 Plant breeding at the Horticultural Experiment Station, Vineland A Soliloquy Query Editorial Alumni College life Athletics Macdonald Locals

The theme of this issue is post-war reconstruction. The first article is a number of statements on the Age of Reconstruction by eminent agriculturalists and politicians. Other articles follow on how the ideals of reconstruction may be applied to spirituality, rural education, and improved road systems. The farm improvement article addresses the value of the automobile to the farmer. The Macdonald Institute column provides alumnae updates and campus humour. The Alumni column contains alumni updates and a tribute to Captain Playford Hales. This issue includes a listing of all O. A. C. graduates who have a surname beginning with the letter "C". The New Era Spiritual reconstruction The rural school in its relation to the present period The improvements of the rural home surroundings Good roads as a factor in reconstruction Farm power Editorial Alumni Macdonald Locals advertising

Agricultural articles in this issue pertain to aerobic soil bacteria, the popularity of the Duroc Jersey hog for swine production, and the best tractor speed for plowing. Other articles address music in the English department curriculum, and the Canadian poet Bliss Carman's visit to the college. Also is an article on the Soldier Settlement Program in Ontario. The serialized wartime story titled "Apres la Guerre" is continued in this issue. Campus news reports on the athletic activities, the meeting of the Union Literary Society, the annual Philharmonic Concert, and the housewarming party for the new Mill's Hall. The Macdonald Institute column highlights the first Canadian Child Welfare Conference hosted at the college. The Alumni column contains updates on the O. A. C. alumni associations, and alumni and alumnae updates. Apparent complex life history of the Azotobacter Music's place on the curriculum The Sweet o' the Year Bliss Carman at the O. A. C. The Duroc Jersey Hog in Ontario Soldier settlement in Ontario "Apres la Guerre" Farm power Editorial Macdonald College life Athletics Alumni advertising

This issue's agricultural articles pertain to utilizing purebred sires to improve cattle and swine breeding stock, the nuisance of the warble fly, cultivating ginseng, and improving the soil by cultivating legumes. Other articles include the need for agricultural loans for farmers, observations of birds from the Prairies, and instruction on the ignition system of gasoline engines. The prize winning speeches from the public speaking contest address improving the farming industry, and the flax industry in Ontario. There are reprints of articles on farming as a business, and a short story. An article by an alumnus comments on the need for a new direction in post-war education. Campus news highlights the graduating class of 1919 by featuring photographs of each of the students. The Macdonald Institute column reports on the Farewell Dance and welcomes the new short course students. The Alumni column contains alumni updates. A pure-bred sire on every farm - a possibility The organization of the farm business Farming as a business The turning point The flax industry in Ontario Money for Canadian farmers Warble Fly a serious pest Some suggestions on the swine industry Some striking western birds "And now the war ends" Ginseng and its cultivation Farm power Spring saws Eight Day's Leave Nitro-cultures for legumes Editorial Alumni Macdonald College life Locals advertising

This summer issue's agricultural articles pertain to the work of the Live Stock Branch in Ottawa, pedigree Ayrshire cattle in Canada, the British milk trade, the best crops for feeding hogs, preparing stock for the show ring, and growing alfalfa. This issue also contains two short stories. Farm improvement articles feature the construction of silos, and the cooling system of a gasoline engine. Campus news reports on a tribute to the debating champions and the excursion to O. A. C. that brought in one thousand visitors. The Macdonald Institute column provides alumnae updates, and reviews of the faculty luncheon, graduation dinner, and the May Dance. The Alumni column contains another instalment of an article chronicling German occupation in Europe, a letter from alumnus Donald Shutt, and alumni updates. Starting in this issue is a listing of all O. A. C. graduates who have a surname beginning with the letter "A". Juliana Distribution of pure bred sires Ayrshire families in Canada The Mowing Midsummer Night "The Soul of the Wild" The British milk trade The March into Germany Pasture and soiling crops for hogs Preparing stock for the show ring The Quest of the V. C. The monolithic concrete silo The growing of alfalfa Farm power Human or otherwise? Editorial Collect for Dominion Day Alumni Macdonald College life advertising

The theme of this issue is increasing profitability in farming. Articles address profitability in areas of dairy farming, crop rotation, utilizing wire fencing, investment in good quality stock and equipment, and the transportation of fruit. Other articles feature apiculture, the establishment of Co-operative Bull Associations, and another success of the livestock judging team. There is a landscape architecture article on home beautification. While the horticultural article pertains to fertilizing gardens. Campus news features the student's winter social and athletic events. The Macdonald Institute column reports on the activities of the Y. W. C. A. and women's hockey. The Alumni column contains the second instalment of an article chronicling German occupation in Europe and alumni updates. Outapiaries Home beautification Factors influencing profitable dairy farming Crop rotation Answers to correspondents Manuring and fertilizing gardens Fence sense Co-operative Bull Associations Poor stock and equipment is poor business Durham boys win in stock judging Farm power Editorial Alumni The March into Germany Macdonald College life Athletics Locals advertising

This issue begins with an article regarding immigration provided by the Department of Immigration and Colonization. The agricultural articles pertain to silage crops for Northern Ontario, the development of sweet clover as an annual crop, President Reynolds' address on the mission of the agricultural college, and the operation of seed drills. Other articles feature the English poet Alfred Noyes, and the educational system in Switzerland. Featured is an article that outlines the formation of the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair. The focus of the campus news are the examination results and the short courses for the Mac Hall students and soldier's wives. The serialized wartime story titled "Apres la Guerre" is continued in this issue. The Alumni column contains a report of the Western Ontario O. A. C. Alumni Association, and alumni and alumnae updates. This issue does not contain a Macdonald column. Filling the manless land The spirit of Alfred Noyes Silage crops for Northern Ontario The mission of the agricultural college The educational system of Switzerland Coming - annual sweet clover The Royal Agricultural Winter Fair Postmortem Farm power Editorial "Apres la Guerre" College life Athletics Alumni advertising

Agricultural articles in this issue pertain to effects of the European corn borer in Ontario and the profitability of poultry farming. Other articles provide an overview of the faculty of agriculture at the University of British Columbia, the work of the Soldier Settlement Board, the aims of the Canada Colonization Association, and a history of the O. A. C. Printed in this issue is the O. A. C. Review competition's first prize winning descriptive essay. Campus news reports on the formal opening of the Ontario Veterinary College, the annual stock judging tour, O. A. C. Returned Men's Dance, and the athletic assault-at-arms. The Alumni column notes the success of the Central Alumni Banquet at the Royal Winter Fair, and alumni and alumnae updates. The Macdonald Institute column highlights the Food Facts Exhibit and alumnae updates. A Winter's Night The faculty of agriculture in the University of British Columbia Pictures from the North The distribution of the European Corn Borer in Ontario during the summer of 1922 Our alma mater The work of the Soldier Settlement Board An ounce of reflection The farm poultry business as revealed by cost accounts The aims of the Canada Colonization Association Agricultural engineering Editorial College life Macdonald Athletics Alumni Locals advertising

The New Year's issue begins with an address from the Federal Minister of Agriculture. Agricultural articles pertain to the profitability of the United Farmers' Co-operative Company, farming in Germany, and how horticultural science differs from agriculture. Printed in this issue are the second prize-winning short story and poem. In addition, there are travel diaries of a trip to Scotland to see Shorthorn cattle, a canoe trip on the Atikokan River, and livestock judging in Chicago. An update on the changes on campus include the building of Mills Hall. The editorial extols the alumni to contribute to the Memorial Fund for the building of War Memorial Hall. While an alumnus provides another wartime biographical sketch titled "Apres la Guerre" that was also featured in the Guelph Mercury. The Macdonald Institute column provides alumnae news. The Alumni column contains reports from the reunion banquets, and alumni updates. A message for 1920 The commercial side of the U. F. O. Told at the Corner Store "At the shire of the tricolors" Signaller, C. F. A. New buildings at the Ontario Agricultural College A Promise Birch and Paddle That Chicago Trip Farming in central Germany Some special needs of horticulture "Apres la Guerre" Staff at the Ontario Agricultural College Farm power Editorial College life Macdonald Alumni Locals advertising

This issue begins with an address given by President Reynolds at the University of Toronto. A Macdonald student presents her perspective on employment as a dietitian. Agricultural articles pertain to poultry production in New York State, livestock judging at the Ontario Provincial Winter Fair, and the short course in farm power. The serialized wartime story titled "Apres la Guerre" is continued in this issue. Campus news reports on the athletic activities, stock judging trips, concerts to raise funds for the War Memorial Fund, and the success for the Conversat. The Macdonald Institute column highlights the creation of the memoriam monument for alumna Ethel Dickenson. The Alumni column contains reports on the establishment of the O. A. C. Ontario Alumni Association, and alumni and alumnae updates. The town dominant The status of the dietitian Charity Plowman's Night Song The scrub hen campaign in West Zorra The Ontario Provincial Winter Fair "Apres la Guerre" Christmas shopping Farm power Editorial Macdonald College life Athletics Alumni advertising

Agricultural articles in this issue pertain to local agricultural education, the profitability of farming, a review of the activities of the Dominion Livestock Branch, and a report on Cold Storage of the Dairy Branch of the Department of Agriculture. Reprinted is Professor Jones' paper on bacteriological instruction in schools. Other articles address the aerial forest survey of Northern Ontario, and the importance of lightning protection. Professor Unwin continues his series on Canadian literature. Introduced this month is a new series on great musicians and a wartime story by B. A. Ward. The Alumni column contains graduation photographs of each of the O. A. C. class of 1921 graduates with surnames from "N" to "Y", and each of the Macdonald Institute class of 1921 graduates. Also included are alumni and alumnae updates. This issue does not contain a Macdonald column. The local agricultural school Canadian literature: a series Elementary bacteriological instruction in public and high schools What's the matter with farming? Dominion Live Stock Branch A survey of our forests from the air Lightning protection A Morning Promenade Chats about great musicians The Dairy and Cold Storage Branch The mail box Farm power Editorial College life Alumni Athletics Locals advertising

This issue begins with the address given at the Ontario Agricultural and Experimental Union meeting. Agricultural articles pertain to how the barberry plant is contributing to the problem with black stem rust, the need for good sanitation in poultry production, grafting fruit trees, sheep production, and the gas engine in agriculture. Campus news provides the athletic results and an article on preserving the memory of the O. A. C. students who died in the war. The Query column answers agricultural queries send in by subscribers. The Macdonald Institute column provides an article on the production and preparation of tea, activities of the Y. W. C. A., and the At Home promenade. The Alumni column contains entries from student-soldiers who intend to return to the O. A. C. to complete their studies, an account of the agricultural instruction provided at the Khaki University, and alumni updates. Address delivered at the Experimental Union Banish the common barberry Poultry sanitation Grafting A day's work in butter making Farm power Keep more sheep "Peggy Sees Life" A Hymn at Sea Editorial Alumni Macdonald Query College life Athletics advertising

The college year closes with a guest article regarding the Nova Scotia Agricultural College. Agricultural articles pertain to research into canning and dehydration conducted at the Vineland Research Station, rearing a dairy calf, treatment for alkali soils, the economics of egg production, and potato diseases in New Brunswick. Other articles include a travel diary regarding New Zealand, and a recount of agriculture in London, England. The farm power column compares the ratings of farm tractors. Another wartime biographical sketch titled "Apres la Guerre" is printed in this issue. Campus news features the events of the closing of the school year from the Cosmopolitan Club dance to the changes to the college admission requirements. The Macdonald Institute column provides a review of the second annual Old Girls Day, and alumnae news. While the Alumni column contains alumni updates and a listing of all O. A. C. graduates who have surnames beginning with the letters "Mc" and "Mac". The Nova Scotia Agricultural College The geysers and hot lakes of New Zealand Canning and dehydrating Raising the dairy calf Agriculture in the centre of London, England Clouds Alkali soils The economics of egg production Potato diseases in New Brunswick "Apres la Guerre" Farm power Editorial Telephonitis College life Macdonald Alumni Departmental notes Locals

This issue's articles feature the inception of the Royal Agricultural Winter Fair, a brief history of the farm management department, purchasing sheep in Great Britain, the fruit industry in British Columbia, and a student's account of the Student Volunteer Movement Convention in Iowa. Continued in this issue are the travel diary of a canoe trip on the Atikokan River, an alumnus' reminiscence of Scotland, and the wartime biographical sketch titled "Apres la Guerre". While the farm power column contains an article on tractor use in Ontario. The editorial addresses the multitude of college badges that exist, and faculty salaries. The Macdonald Institute column provides a report on the At Home promenade, the Y. W. C. A. meeting, and alumnae news. The Alumni column contains notes on the War Memorial campaign, updates on the campus departments, and alumni updates. Reminiscences of Scotland The Royal Agricultural Winter Fair The Brook in February A brief history of the department of farm management Buying sheep in Great Britain The future of fruit growing in B. C. Snow Shoeing Song A visit to Iowa State College A Promise Departmental notes "Apres la Guerre" Farm power Editorial Macdonald Alumni College life Athletics Locals advertising