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Insights from reconstructed Holocene paleo ice-stream activity in Northern Central Greenland.

Reliable knowledge of ice discharge dynamics for the Greenland ice sheet via its ice streams is essential if we are to understand its stability under future climate scenarios as well as their dynamics in the past, especially when using numerical models for diagnosis and prediction. Currently active ice streams in Greenland have been well mapped using remote-sensing data while past ice-stream paths in what are now deglaciated regions can be reconstructed from the landforms they left behind. However, little is known about possible former and now defunct ice streams in areas still covered by ice. Here we use radio-echo sounding data to decipher the regional ice-flow history of the northeastern Greenland ice sheet on the basis of its internal stratigraphy. By creating a three-dimensional reconstruction of time-equivalent horizons, we map folds deep below the surface that we then attribute to the deformation caused by now-extinct ice streams. We propose that locally this ancient ice-!ow regime was much more focused and reached much farther inland than today’s and was deactivated when the main drainage system was reconfigured and relocated southwards. The insight that major ice streams in Greenland might start, shift or abruptly disappear will affect our approaches to understanding and modelling the past or future response of Earth’s ice sheets to global warming. Such behaviour has to be sufficiently reproduced by numerical models operating on the mid- to longer-term timescales to be considered adequate physical representations of the naturally occuring dynamic behaviour of ice streams.

A better understanding of ice flow and deformation is needed to improve the projections of future sea level rise. Especially ice streams, the main contributors to solid ice discharge, still require more observational data to be represented sufficiently in computer models. The East Greenland Ice-core Project (EastGRIP) thus successfully drilled the first continuous deep ice core from an ice stream, the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream (NEGIS) while serving as a hub for geophysical measurements. A major unknown is the ice microstructure, i.e. the size and orientation of ice crystals (CPO) and its interplay with chemical impurities. Impurities are a climate proxy but are also assumed to impact microstructural processes, such as deformation and grain growth, and it is thus crucial to investigate where impurities are located in the microstructure. By combining microstructural (fabric analyser, microstructure-mapping, large area scanning macroscope) and impurity (Raman spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry 2D imaging) methods, we here present a systematic overview of the evolution of the microstructure and of the location of impurities throughout the EastGRIP ice core. Solid impurities, such as dust, are preferably located in the grain interior, while soluble impurities are mainly in the grain boundaries. This shows that microstructure should be considered when using impurities as a climate proxy due to the large spatial variability on the (sub-) millimetre scale. The analysed microstructure in the EastGRIP ice core further assists in reconstructing the original orientation of the ice core via visual stratigraphy, delivering the ground-truthing for an improved method of interfering horizontal fabric with co-polarised phase-sensitive radar and gaining new insights into the spatial variability of anisotropy and ice viscosity within NEGIS. Combining microstructural data with numerical modelling enables new insights into the processes underlying CPO formati

We present a record of melt events obtained from the East Greenland Ice Core Project (EastGRIP) ice core in central northeastern Greenland, covering the largest part of the Holocene. The data were acquired visually using an optical dark-field line scanner. We detect and describe melt layers and lenses, seen as bubble-free layers and lenses, throughout the ice above the bubble–clathrate transition. This transition is located at 1150 m depth in the EastGRIP ice core, corresponding to an age of 9720 years b2k. We define the brittle zone in the EastGRIP ice core as that from 650 to 950 m depth, where we count on average more than three core breaks per meter. We analyze melt layer thicknesses, correct for ice thinning, and account for missing layers due to core breaks. Our record of melt events shows a large, distinct peak around 1014 years b2k (986 CE) and a broad peak around 7000 years b2k, corresponding to the Holocene Climatic Optimum. In total, we can identify approximately 831 mm of melt (corrected for thinning) over the past 10 000 years. We find that the melt event from 986 CE is most likely a large rain event similar to that from 2012 CE, and that these two events are unprecedented throughout the Holocene. We also compare the most recent 2500 years to a tree ring composite and find an overlap between melt events and tree ring anomalies indicating warm summers. Considering the ice dynamics of the EastGRIP site resulting from the flow of the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream (NEGIS), we find that summer temperatures must have been at least 3 ± 0.6 ∘C warmer during the Early Holocene compared to today.

Impurities in polar ice play an essential role in ice flow and deformation and the integrity of the ice core record. In particular, cloudy bands, visible layers with high impurity concentrations, are prominent features in deep ice cores. However, these layers' physical and chemical properties are poorly understood, highlighting the need to analyse them in more detail. For this purpose, we combine measurements on different scales using a variety of methods, such as the visual stratigraphy line scanner, fabric analyser, microstructure mapping, and Raman spectroscopy. Here we report an extensive record of the microstructural spatial distribution and mineralogy of solid micro-inclusions in glacial ice from the Northeast Greenland Ice Core Project (EastGRIP) ice core ranging back to 50 ka before today. We determine major minerals related to terrestrial dust, such as quartz, feldspar, mica and hematite, carbonaceous particles, dolomite, and gypsum. Furthermore, we have identified rare minerals, such as rutile, anatase, epidote, titanite, and grossular. We thus show that inclusions in cloudy bands are of diverse mineralogy and that the respective mineralogy of micro-inclusions within and outside of cloudy bands can differ. We discuss the possible impact of these inclusions on deformation processes, and we systematically investigate and classify cloudy band properties, such as thickness, intensity, and sequences of cloudy bands, to distinguish between different types occurring in EastGRIP glacial ice. This study is thus an interdisciplinary approach to better understand the nature of cloudy bands - a regular feature defining large parts of deep polar ice cores.

Reliable knowledge of ice discharge dynamics for the Greenland ice sheet via its ice streams is essential if we are to understand its stability under future climate scenarios. Currently active ice streams in Greenland have been well mapped using remote-sensing data while past ice-stream paths in what are now deglaciated regions can be reconstructed from the landforms they left behind. However, little is known about possible former and now defunct ice streams in areas still covered by ice. Here we use radio-echo sounding data to decipher the regional ice-flow history of the northeastern Greenland ice sheet on the basis of its internal stratigraphy. By creating a three-dimensional reconstruction of time-equivalent horizons, we map folds deep below the surface that we then attribute to the deformation caused by now-extinct ice streams. We propose that locally this ancient ice-flow regime was much more focused and reached much farther inland than today’s and was deactivated when the main drainage system was reconfigured and relocated southwards. The insight that major ice streams in Greenland might start, shift or abruptly disappear will affect future approaches to understanding and modelling the response of Earth’s ice sheets to global warming.

An optimization problem is proposed for inferring physical properties of polycrystals given ultrasonic (elastic) wave velocity measurements, made across multiple sample orientations. The feasibility of the method is demonstrated by inferring both the effective grain elastic parameters and the grain c-axis orientation distribution function (ODF) of ice-core samples from Priestley glacier, Antarctica. The method relies on expanding the ODF in terms of a spherical harmonic series, which allows for a non-parametric estimation of the sample ODF. Moreover, any linear combination of the Voigt (strain) and Reuss (stress) homogenization scheme is allowed, although for glacier ice, the exact choice is found to matter little for bulk elastic behaviour, and thus for inferred physical properties, too. Finally, the accuracy of the inferred grain elastic parameters is discussed, including the well-posedness and shortcomings of the inverse problem, relevant for future adoptions in glaciology, geology and elsewhere.

Ever since the first deep ice cores were drilled, it has been a challenge to determine their original, in-situ orientation. In general, the orientation of an ice core is lost as the drill is free to rotate during transport to the surface. For shallow ice cores, it is usually possible to match the adjacent core breaks, which preserves the orientation of the ice column. However, this method fails for deep ice cores, such as the EastGRIP ice core in Northeast Greenland. We provide a method to reconstruct ice core orientation using visual stratigraphy and borehole geometry. As the EastGRIP ice core is drilled through the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream, we use information about the directional structures to perform a full geographical re-orientation. We compared the core orientation with logging data from core break matching and the pattern of the stereographic projections of the crystals’c-axis orientations. Both comparisons agree very well with the proposed orientation method. The method works well for 441 out of 451 samples from a depth of 1375–2120 m in the EastGRIP ice core. It can also be applied to other ice cores, providing a better foundation for interpreting physical properties and understanding the flow of ice.

The polar regions are the ideal place to observe the effects of climate change. Ice sheets accumulate annual layers of snow, and later ice, over millennia and thereby create a valuable climate archive. To date, most ice cores have been drilled to unravel the secrets of the past climate, i.e. to reconstruct atmospheric conditions and temperatures. With the ongoing EastGRIP ice core drilling, the main focus is to increase our understanding of the flow of ice. We can then make better predictions of how much, and especially how fast, the Greenland ice sheet will contribute to sea level rise. To learn about ice flow, the core is drilled through the fast moving Northeast Greenland ice stream (NEGIS). The main focus of my work lays on understanding ice flow on the centimeter scale. To investigate small-scale features in the ice cores, I use high resolution line scan images, which cover the entire 2120 m of the ice core drilled so far. To date, all images-data were analyzed without knowledge about the orientation of the sample. For an accurate description and analysis of deformation structures in ice, knowledge of the orientation of the sample is crucial. Thus, I have developed a method to reconstruct the orientation of physical properties image samples. I use this newly won knowledge to analyze and interpret small-scale deformation structures found in the line scan images. I find sudden changes in the tilt of layers and interpret these as duplex structures, where stacks of layers imbricate between shear zones. Understanding the small-scale structures will help advance our knowledge on ice flow and how ice internally deforms. Furthermore, it can help unfold disturbed and folded stratigraphy in the bottom sections of ice cores, and thus extend climate archives even further into the past. I also analyze the line scan images to investigate prominent, millimeter-thick melt layers in the ice stratigraphy. These melt layers are caused

Drilling an ice core through an ice sheet (typically 2000 to 3000 m thick) is a technical challenge that nonetheless generates valuable and unique information on palaeo-climate and ice dynamics. As technically the drilling cannot be done in one run, the core has to be fractured approximately every 3 m to retrieve core sections from the bore hole. This fracture process is initiated by breaking the core with core-catchers which also clamp the engaged core in the drill head while the whole drill is then pulled up with the winch motor. This standard procedure is known to become difficult and requires extremely high pulling forces (Wilhelms et al. 2007), in the very deep part of the drill procedure, close to the bedrock of the ice sheet, especially when the ice material becomes warm (approximately -2°C) due to the geothermal heat released from the bedrock. Recently, during the EastGRIP (East Greenland Ice coring Project) drilling we observed a similar issue with breaking off cored sections only with extremely high pulling forces, but started from approximately 1800 m of depth, where the temperature is still very cold (approximately -20°C). This has not been observed at other ice drilling sites. As dependencies of fracture behaviour on crystal orientation and grain size are known (Schulson & Duval 2009) for ice, we thus examined the microstructure in the ice samples close to and at the core breaks. First preliminary results suggest that these so far unexperienced difficulties are due to the profoundly different c-axes orientation distribution (CPO) in the EastGRIP ice core. In contrast to other deep ice cores which have been drilled on ice domes or ice divides, EastGRIP is located in an ice stream. This location means that the deformation geometry (kinematics) is completely different, resulting in a different CPO (girdle pattern instead of single maximum pattern). Evidence regarding additional grain-size dependence will hopefully help to refine the fracturing procedure, w

Here we present the ice microstructure and CPO (c-axes fabric) data from the upper 2121 m of the EastGRIP ice core, an on-going deep drilling project on the North East Greenland Ice Stream. Understanding ice flow behaviour of fast flowing ice streams is crucial for accurate projections of future global sea level rise, but is still poorly understood due to e.g. missing observational fabric data from ice streams. The presented CPO patterns found at EastGRIP show (1) a rapid evolution of c-axes anisotropy compared to deep ice cores from less dynamic sites, (2) a CPO evolution towards a strong vertical girdle and (3) CPO patterns that have not previously been directly observed in ice. Furthermore, data regarding grain properties (e.g. grain size) and indications of dynamic recrystallization, already at shallow depths, are presented. The ice CPO shows a clear evolution with depth. In the first measurements at 111 m depth a broad single maximum distribution is observed, which transforms into a crossed girdle CPO (196-294 m). With increasing depth, an evolution towards a vertical girdle c-axes distribution occurs. Below 1150 m the CPO evolves into a vertical girdle with a higher density of c-axes oriented horizontally, a novel CPO in ice. These CPO patterns indicate a depth-related change in deformation modes, from vertical compression to extensional deformation along flow. Grain size values are similar to results from other Greenlandic deep ice cores. Grain size evolution is characterized by an increase until 500 m depth, a decrease until 1360 m depth and mainly constant values in the Glacial. These findings are accompanied by indications of an early onset of dynamic recrystallisation e.g. irregular grain shapes, protruding grains and island grains. The presented high-resolution data enable, for the very first time, a detailed and data- based look into a fast-flowing ice stream and are an important step towards a better understanding of the rheology of ice and its flow be

New and more detailed investigations from the EGRIP physical properties dataset down to 1650m of the ice core will be presented. EGRIP is the first deep ice core through one of our Earth’s ice sheets partly motivated by ice dynamics’ research. It is drilled just downstream of the onset of the largest ice stream in Greenland (North East Greenland Ice Stream). Data processing of the collected ice core physical properties data was done at the Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Marine and Polar Research. The two main findings regarding CPO (c-axes fabric) pattern, 1) a rapid evolution of c-axes anisotropy and 2) partly novel characteristics, were further, and in more detail, investigated. To gain a better understanding of the dominating deformation mechanisms of NEGIS, different approaches considering different length scales were chosen (1650m versus 0.55m and 0.09m scale), including several case studies. A large-scale statistical analysis of the entire dataset results in new information about the depth-dependent evolution of parameters as for example the strength of c-axes anisotropy and grain-size in the polycrystal. In general, mean grain-size decreases with depth as we drill through the Holocene ice and approach the Glacial material. The grain size variability with fine and coarse grain layers is extreme in the Holocene ice but decreases in the Glacial ice. Microstructure properties were examined, with the aim to investigate the relationship between the remarkable rapid evolution of CPO-pattern and grain properties evolution. Furthermore, the evolution of a grain-size dependent anisotropy, found in the first 350m of the ice core, is investigated and examined also in deeper sections of the core. The large-scale evolution of density distributions of c-axes orientations differ significantly from observations in deep ice cores made so far: A novel "hourglass shaped" girdle was observed, characterized by a high density of horizontally oriented c-axes within th

Visual stratigraphy of ice cores from Greenland as well as Antarctica revealed folding on a cm scale, with fold amplitudes varying from less than 1 cm to a few decimetres. Stratigraphy bands are visualized by an indirect light source scattering on surfaces inside the ice, mainly particles and air bubbles / hydrates. Due to their potential influence on the integrity of the climatic record, folds have been subject to modelling studies, however, the initial formation of the disturbances is not fully understood. In this study we present a detailed analysis of the visible folds from the NEEM ice core from Greenland and the EDML ice core from Antarctica, discuss their characteristics and frequency and present examples of typical fold structures. We also analyse the structures with regard to the deformation boundary conditions under which they formed. In case of the NEEM core the structures evolve from gentle waves at about 1500 m to overturned z-folds with increasing depth. Occasionally, the folding causes significant thickening of layers. Their similar-fold shape indicates that they are passive features and are probably not initiated by rheology differences between alternating layers. Layering is heavily disturbed and tracing of single layers is no longer possible below a depth of 2160 m. C-axes orientation distributions for the corresponding core sections were analysed where available in addition to visual stratigraphy. The data show axial-plane parallel strings of grains with c-axis orientations that deviate from that of the matrix, which shows a single-maximum fabric at the depth where the folding occurs. In case of the EDML ice cores the folding starts at a depth of about 1700 m and show very similar characteristics as found in the NEEM core. Numerical modelling of crystal viscoplasticity deformation and dynamic recrystallisation was used to improve the understanding of the formation of the observed structures during deformation. The modelling reproduces the developm

Disturbances on the centimetre scale in the stratigraphy of the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling (NEEM) ice core (North Greenland) can be mapped by an optical line scanner as long as the ice has visual layering, such as, for example, cloudy bands. Different focal depths allow, to a certain extent, a three-dimensional view of the structures. In this study we present a detailed analysis of the visible folds, discuss their characteristics and frequency, and present examples of typical fold structures. We also analyse the structures with regard to the deformation boundary conditions under which they formed. The structures evolve from gentle waves at about 1500 m to overturned z folds with increasing depth. Occasionally, the folding causes significant thickening of layers. Their similar fold shape indicates that they are passive features and are probably not initiated by rheology differences between alternating layers. Layering is heavily disturbed and tracing of single layers is no longer possible below a depth of 2160 m. C axes orientation distributions for the corresponding core sections were analysed, where available, in addition to visual stratigraphy. The data show axial-plane parallel strings of grains with c axis orientations that deviate from that of the matrix, which shows a single maximum fabric at the depth where the folding occurs. Numerical modelling of crystal viscoplastic deformation and dynamic recrystallisation was used to improve the understanding of the formation of the observed structures during deformation. The modelling reproduces the development of bands of grains with a tilted-lattice orientation relative to the single maximum fabric of the matrix, and also the associated local deformation. We conclude from these results that the observed folding can be explained by formation of these tilted-lattice bands.

Disturbances on the centimeter scale in the layering of the NEEM ice core (North Greenland) can be mapped by means of visual stratigraphy as long as the ice does have a visual layering, such as, for example, cloudy bands. Different focal depths of the visual stratigraphy method allow, to a certain extent, a three dimensional view of the structures. In this study we present a structural analysis of the visible folds, discuss characteristics and frequency and present examples of typical fold structures. With this study we aim to quantify the potential impact of small scale folding on the integrity of climate proxy data. We also analyze the structures with regard to the stress environment under which they formed. The structures evolve from gentle waves at about 1700 m to overturned z-folds with increasing depth. Occasionally, the folding causes significant thickening of layers. Their shape indicates that they are passive features and are probably not initiated by rheology differences between layers. Layering is heavily disturbed and tracing of single layers is no longer possible below a depth of 2160 m. Lattice orientation distributions for the corresponding core sections were analyzed where available in addition to visual stratigraphy. The data show axial-plane parallel strings of grains with c.axis orientations that deviate from that of the matrix, which has more or less a single-maximum fabric at the depth where the folding occurs. We conclude from these data that folding is a consequence of deformation along localized shear planes and kink bands. The findings are compared with results from other deep ice cores. The observations presented are supplemented by micro-structural modeling using a crystal plasticity code that reproduces deformation, applying a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), coupled with ELLE to include dynamic recrystallization processes. The model results reproduce the development of bands of grains with a tilted orientation relative to the single maximum

Disturbances on the centimeter scale in the layering of the NEEM ice core (North Greenland) can be mapped by means of visual stratigraphy as long as the ice has a visual layering, such as, for example, cloudy bands. Different focal depths of the visual stratigraphy method allow, to a certain extent, a three-dimensional view of the structures. In this study we present a structural analysis of the visible folds, discuss characteristics and frequency and present examples of typical fold structures. The structures evolve from gentle waves at about 1500 m to overturned z-folds with increasing depth. Occasionally, the folding causes significant thickening of layers. Their shape indicates that they are passive features and are probably not initiated by rheology differences between layers. Layering is heavily disturbed and tracing of single layers is no longer possible below a depth of 2160 m. Lattice orientation distributions for the corresponding core sections were analyzed where available in addition to visual stratigraphy. The data show axial-plane parallel strings of grains with c-axis orientations that deviate from that of the matrix, which shows a well developed single-maximum fabric at the depth where the folding occurs. We conclude from these data that folding is a consequence of deformation along localized shear planes and kink bands. The findings are compared with results from other deep ice cores. The observations presented are supported by microstructural modeling. We are using a crystal plasticity code that reproduces deformation, applying a fast Fourier transform method (FFT), coupled with the microstructural platform ELLE to include dynamic recrystallization processes. The model results reproduce the development of bands of grains with a tilted orientation relative to the single maximum fabric of the matrix and also the associated local deformation.