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College affordability is weighing heavily this year on the minds of students, parents, faculty, and the U.S. electorate. Intent on saving money on college tuition as well as impressing college admissions committees, high-achieving students frequently start college-level work early through Advanced Placement courses. However, these courses do not replace the learning that takes place in college-level honors courses. For honors students, making the transition between high school and college means finding opportunities to learn in new ways, taking risks, and diving deeper into ideas. For more than fifteen years this author has been a professor of sociology at a public liberal arts college with an honors program. She states that advising students and seeing them graduate to pursue meaningful careers in education, science, and the arts is the most rewarding part of her teaching career. Her daughter, who is a high school senior at a rural public high school, has completed several Advanced Placement courses and a dual enrollment course at a local college. In recent conversations, they have shared perceptions of the role of honors education in high school and college. Their different vantage points have led them to consider the purpose of Advanced Placement courses, the motivation of students who complete them, and what is in the best interest of students, honors programs, and colleges in awarding credit for AP and similar programs.

Although smoking declines in the United States, the prevalence of male adolescent smokeless tobacco (ST; moist snuff and chewing tobacco) use remains unchanged. ST product characteristics, such as flavoring, packaging, and branding, could influence adolescents' ST initiation and continued use. This qualitative study examines the potential role of product characteristics in shaping ST-related perceptions and behaviors among rural adolescent males. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted at three California rural high schools. ST users were asked about their experiences and perceptions related to product characteristics. Interviews were transcribed, coded, and analyzed using a general inductive approach. Participants associated flavored ST with appealing non-tobacco products, such as chewing gum and alcohol. Availability of different varieties and flavors stimulated interest and curiosity in sampling or switching between ST products. Time-limited promotional flavors and packaging also enhanced product appeal. Adolescent ST users preferred certain brands based on perceived brand features and perceived nicotine content, associating higher-strength brands as better suited for experienced ST users. Brand preferences frequently reflected perceived ST brand popularity within peer groups. Based on these observations, potential ST regulation and health education campaigns to address misconceptions about ST characteristics could influence adolescents' ST-related perceptions and reduce ST use among this vulnerable population.

Smokeless tobacco (ST) use among US high school males living in rural areas exceeds national levels. Subgroups at heightened risk of ST use have been identified, but less is known regarding ST decision-making within high-risk groups. The study objective was to describe rural adolescent males' perceived ST acceptability, health risks, and social implications and how those perceptions differ between ST users and never-users. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with a purposeful sample of 55 male students (32 ST ever-users) at three rural California high schools. Interviews were audio recorded and professionally transcribed. Investigators collaboratively developed a codebook based on thematic content and then independently coded transcripts, reconvening frequently to achieve consensus. Coded text was systematically organized into themes following a general inductive approach. ST users and non-users shared multiple ST-related perceptions, including: that ST is a common, normative way of life in rural "country" culture among certain groups; that ST use conveys oral health risks; and that the decision to use (or not to use) is rooted in personal choice. ST users' and never-users' perceptions differed regarding the immediacy, severity, and inevitability of health risks, particularly relative to cigarette smoking. Other differences included perceived parental permissiveness and the expected social benefits of ST use, such as peer acceptance and conveying maturity. Within this population of rural male adolescents, ST users emphasized the social benefits of ST use, while acknowledging but discounting health risks. Differences and similarities in tobacco perceptions among adolescents living in similar environments may inform effective health communication.

BackgroundTobacco products in the United States and the patterns of tobacco use are changing. Although cigarette smoking prevalence has declined, dental professionals are likely to encounter substantial numbers of patients who have tried and are continuing to use new and alternative tobacco products, including cigars, water pipes (hookahs), and electronic cigarettes, as well as conventional and new smokeless tobacco products.MethodsThe authors reviewed conventional and new tobacco products in the United States, their adverse oral and systemic health effects, and their prevalence of use.ResultsTobacco products other than cigarettes account for a substantial portion of tobacco use. For this reason, tobacco-use prevention and cessation counseling provided by dental health care professionals must address all tobacco products, including cigarettes, cigars, water pipes, and electronic cigarettes, as well as conventional and new smokeless tobacco products. Cigarette smoking and smokeless tobacco use are associated with immediate and long-term adverse health effects, including nicotine addiction, oral and systemic disease, and death. Novel products may attract new tobacco users, potentially leading to addiction that results in enduring tobacco product use and associated adverse health effects.ConclusionsThis critical review of conventional, new, and emerging tobacco products presents information that dental professionals can use in providing tobacco-related counseling to patients who use or who are at risk for using tobacco products.Practical implicationsIt is essential that dental professionals are knowledgeable about tobacco products and are able to answer patients' questions and provide them with evidence-based tobacco-related counseling. This information may prevent patients from initiating use or help reduce or cease use to avoid immediate and long-term adverse health effects, including nicotine addiction, oral and systemic disease, and death.

ObjectivesTo adapt an established instrument for measuring adolescents' cigarette-related perceptions for new application with electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes).MethodsIn this exploratory study, 104 male high school students (40% tobacco ever-users) estimated the probability of potential e-cigarette risks (eg, lung cancer) or benefits (eg, look cool). We calculated associations between risk/benefit composite scores, ever-use, and use intention for e-cigarettes, and analogously, for combustible cigarettes.ResultsE-cigarette ever-use was associated with lower perceived risks, with adjusted differences versus never-users greater for e-cigarettes than for cigarettes. Risk composite score was inversely associated, and benefit score positively associated, with e-cigarette ever-use and use intention.ConclusionConditional risk assessment characterized adolescents' perceived e-cigarette risk/benefit profile, with potential utility for risk-perception measurement in future studies.

Smokeless tobacco, which includes both oral moist snuff and chewing tobacco, imbues substantial health risks, not limited to increased chances of oral and pancreatic cancer, gum disease, nicotine addiction, and, among adolescents, increased likelihood of smoking initiation. There is little evidence that use of smokeless tobacco enhances athletic performance; yet, sporting events and athletic participation are consistently identified as key contexts associated with smokeless tobacco use. The tobacco industry has long marketed smokeless tobacco products at sporting events and targeted elite athletes for product endorsements in order to integrate smokeless tobacco into the sporting culture. Young males, whether striving to gain the acceptance of admired peers or to emulate respected athletes and coaches, often engage in smokeless tobacco experimentation and continued use during sports participation or attendance at sporting events. In the United States, male high school athletes are significantly more likely to use smokeless tobacco than their non-athlete counterparts. The same holds true for female high school athletes, although smokeless tobacco use is much less common among females overall. In contrast, cigarette smoking is less prevalent among high school athletes than non-athletes. Baseball, in particular, is one of several sports, including rodeo, wrestling, ice hockey, and football, that are associated with high levels of smokeless tobacco use among its participants, extending across the high school, college, and professional ranks. Smokeless tobacco use is prohibited on the field of play in college baseball and in the minor leagues. Major League Baseball bars its players from carrying smokeless tobacco products in their uniforms but does not ban use during play, which results in the broadcast of implicit product endorsements to millions of viewers worldwide.

Although smoking declines in the United States, the prevalence of male adolescent smokeless tobacco (ST; moist snuff and chewing tobacco) use remains unchanged. ST product characteristics, such as flavoring, packaging, and branding, could influence adolescents' ST initiation and continued use. This qualitative study examines the potential role of product characteristics in shaping ST-related perceptions and behaviors among rural adolescent males. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted at three California rural high schools. ST users were asked about their experiences and perceptions related to product characteristics. Interviews were transcribed, coded, and analyzed using a general inductive approach. Participants associated flavored ST with appealing non-tobacco products, such as chewing gum and alcohol. Availability of different varieties and flavors stimulated interest and curiosity in sampling or switching between ST products. Time-limited promotional flavors and packaging also enhanced product appeal. Adolescent ST users preferred certain brands based on perceived brand features and perceived nicotine content, associating higher-strength brands as better suited for experienced ST users. Brand preferences frequently reflected perceived ST brand popularity within peer groups. Based on these observations, potential ST regulation and health education campaigns to address misconceptions about ST characteristics could influence adolescents' ST-related perceptions and reduce ST use among this vulnerable population.

Reports on the evaluation of the Earlscourt Girls Connection, a program for young girls with conduct problems. Analyses of behavioral change according to primary caregivers' ratings were conducted comparing admission scores with 6-month and 12-month follow-up. At follow-up, the girls were rated as lower on the total score for externalizing behaviors and were also rated as having increased prosocial behaviors. (Contains 35 references and 2 tables.) (GCP)

ObjectiveThis study assessed attitudes, behaviors, and barriers among general dentists in California, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, related to patient tobacco cessation counseling.MethodsFrom 2004 to 2008, a baseline survey was mailed to 271 study dentists randomly selected from a master Delta Dental Insurance Company provider list in each state who had agreed to participate in a tobacco cessation randomized clinical trial. Four backward logistic regression models assessed correlates of the five As related to tobacco cessation: Asking about tobacco use, Advising users to quit, Assessing readiness to quit, Assisting with quitting, and Arranging follow-up.ResultsMost respondents (n=265) were male, had practiced dentistry for over 15 years, asked about tobacco use (74%), and advised tobacco users to quit (78%). Only 19% assessed readiness to quit; 39% assisted with quitting; 4% arranged follow-up; and 42% had formal training in tobacco cessation. Believing that tobacco cessation counseling was an important professional responsibility, practicing

BACKGROUND: An increase in the number of dentists conducting tobacco-use cessation treatment is needed. The authors assessed the effects of high-intensity training (HIT) or low-intensity training (LIT) and reimbursement on general dentists tobacco-use-related attitudes and treatment behaviors. METHODS: The authors randomly selected 265 dentists in three states and assigned them to one of five groups: HIT workshop groups with and without tobacco-use cessation counseling reimbursement, LIT mailed self-study groups with and without reimbursement or a control group. Outcomes at follow-up were dentists self-reported tobacco-use-related attitudes and behaviors and patients reports of dentists behaviors. RESULTS: Significantly more dentists in the intervention groups reported having positive attitudes and behaviors at follow-up than did dentists in the control group. Dentists in the HIT groups, however, reported assessing patients willingness to quit and assisting them with the quitting process significantly more often than did dentists in the LIT groups. Significantly more patients of dentists in the intervention groups who used tobacco reported receiving advice and assistance from their dentists than did patients of dentists in the control group. Adding reimbursement to HIT or LIT conditions did not provide additional intervention effect. CONCLUSION: Dentists trained by means of a workshop or self-study program used components of a recommended guideline more frequently and felt more positive toward tobacco-use cessation counseling than did dentists in the control group. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Although the workshop training was more successful than the self-study training, the latters reach among dentists could have a more significant public health impact. The effect of reimbursement needs further study.

BackgroundTo determine the tobacco-related knowledge, attitudes, and practice behaviors among US pediatric dentists.MethodsA survey was conducted in 1998 among a national, random sample of 1500 American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry members. Chi-square tests and logistic regression with odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals assessed factors related to pediatric dentists' tobacco control behaviors.ResultsResponse was 65% for the survey. Only 12% of respondents had prior tobacco prevention/cessation training. Of those untrained, 70% were willing to be trained. Less than two-thirds correctly answered any of four tobacco-related knowledge items. Over one-half agreed pediatric dentists should engage in tobacco control behaviors, but identified patient resistance as a barrier. About 24% of respondents reported always/often asking their adolescent patients about tobacco use; 73% reported always/often advising known tobacco users to quit; and 37% of respondents always/often assisting with stopping tobacco use. Feeling prepared to perform tobacco control behaviors (ORs = 1.9-2.8), a more positive attitude score (4 points) from 11 tobacco-related items (ORs = 1.5-1.8), and a higher statewide tobacco use prevalence significantly predicted performance of tobacco control behaviors.ConclusionFindings suggest thatraining programs on tobacco use and dependence treatment in the pediatric dental setting may be needed to promote tobacco control behaviors for adolescent patients.

This paper presented a simplified ecological risk assessment of the toxicity of alum residuals from water treatment plants to surface water that is based on the framework recommended by United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Though few studies have investigated the potential for increased aluminum toxicity with discharge of alum residual streams to the aquatic environment, none have explored the use of ecological risk assessment methodologies to gain additional insight into the potential risk. This systematic approach has been used to elucidate the process of aluminum toxicity from oven-dried alum residuals on aquatic habitats. A laboratory experiment was performed to assess the leaching of dried alum residuals to five lake water samples. The tests were also done to evaluate the effect of pH levels (4, 5.5, and 7) and drying mechanism of alum residual (oven, air or freeze-thaw). Total inorganic aluminum leaching from laboratory analysis was used along with toxicity reference values to determine a risk quotient (RQ) for assessment of risk. Results revealed that alum residuals in surface water could reduce aluminum concentration or potential risk (RQ) for fish in some lake waters at natural pH levels. Surface water pH and drying mechanism of alum residuals did not have considerable effect on leachability of aluminum. Lake waters with and without the addition of alum residual showed a potential risk for chronic sub-lethal toxicity for trout species. Both chronic and acute lethal toxicity was observed in some tests depending on the initial aluminum concentrations in the lake water. A detailed review of toxicological effects of aluminum, its exposure and bioaccumulation was studied for appropriate risk assessment. Key words: alum residual, aluminum toxicity, ecological risk assessment, residual disposal, drinking water treatment, expected environmental concentration, risk quotient. Cet article presente une evaluation simplifiee des risques ecologiques de la toxicite de residus de sulfates d'aluminium des usines de traitement des eaux pour les eaux de surface; cette evaluation est basee sur le cadre recommande par la USEPA. Bien que peu d'etudes aient examine le potentiel d'augmentation de la toxicite causee par l'aluminium avec la decharge de ruisseaux de residus de sulfates d'aluminium dans le milieu aquatique, aucune etude n'a explore l'utilisation de methodes d'evaluation des risques ecologiques afin de mieux connaitre les risques potentiels. Cette approche systematique a ete utilisee pour elucider le processus de la toxicite sur les habitats aquatiques causee par l'aluminium provenant de residus de sulfates d'aluminium seches au four. Une experience en laboratoire a ete realisee pour evaluer la lixiviation de residus de sulfates d'aluminium seches dans cinq echantillons d'eau de lac. Des essais ont egalement ete realises pour evaluer l'effet du pH (4, 5,5 et 7) et du mecanisme de sechage des residus de sulfates d'aluminium (four, air ou gel-degel). La lixiviation totale de l'aluminium inorganique lors d'une analyse en laboratoire a ete utilisee en conjonction avec les valeurs de reference en toxicite afin de determiner un quotient de risque servant a l'evaluation des risques. Les resultats ont montre que les residus de sulfate d'aluminium dans les eaux de surface pourraient reduire la concentration d'aluminium ou le risque potentiel pour les poissons dans certaines eaux de lac a des pH naturels. Le pH des eaux de surface et le mecanisme de sechage des residus de sulfates d'aluminium n'avaient aucun impact significatif sur la lixiviabilite de l'aluminium. Les eaux de lac, avec ou sans ajout de residus de sulfates d'aluminium, ont montre un risque potentiel de toxicite chronique grave mais non mortelle pour les especes de truites. Des toxicites mortelles chronique et aigue ont ete remarquees dans certains essais selon les concentrations initiales d'aluminium dans les eaux de lac. Une etude detaillee des effets toxicologiques de l'aluminium, de son exposition et de la bioaccumulation a ete entreprise pour determiner l'evaluation appropriee des risques. Mots-cles: residus de sulfates d'aluminium, toxicite de l'aluminium, evaluation des risques ecologiques, elimination des residus, traitement de l'eau potable, concentration environnementale prevue, quotient de risque. [Traduit par la Redaction], Introduction Aluminum is known to cause toxicity to aquatic habitat. Many studies were attempted previously to explore the effect on aquatic habitat (Hutcheson and Odense 1984; Holtze and Hutchinson 1989; [...]

STANLEY L. ENGERMAN and ROBERT E. GALLMAN (eds.), The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, Volume 2: The Long Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, Pp.x + 1021, [...]

The feminist movement in the 1960s and 1970s inspired many women historians to write about women and their role in frontier development in America. Although, the main activity of these women was domestic, during later stages of frontier development, many were involved in commercial activity including prostitution. These recovered histories provide places for white, African American and Chinese women who played important roles in frontier development. Traditionally, women have been either ignored by frontier history or described in male-defined ways, a pattern established by Frederick Jackson Turner.

Abstract Background To determine the tobacco-related knowledge, attitudes, and practice behaviors among US pediatric dentists. Methods A survey was conducted in 1998 among a national, random sample of 1500 American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry members. Chi-square tests and logistic regression with odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals assessed factors related to pediatric dentists' tobacco control behaviors. Results Response was 65% for the survey. Only 12% of respondents had prior tobacco prevention/cessation training. Of those untrained, 70% were willing to be trained. Less than two-thirds correctly answered any of four tobacco-related knowledge items. Over one-half agreed pediatric dentists should engage in tobacco control behaviors, but identified patient resistance as a barrier. About 24% of respondents reported always/often asking their adolescent patients about tobacco use; 73% reported always/often advising known tobacco users to quit; and 37% of respondents always/often assisting with stopping tobacco use. Feeling prepared to perform tobacco control behaviors (ORs = 1.9–2.8), a more positive attitude score (4 points) from 11 tobacco-related items (ORs = 1.5–1.8), and a higher statewide tobacco use prevalence significantly predicted performance of tobacco control behaviors. Conclusion Findings suggest thatraining programs on tobacco use and dependence treatment in the pediatric dental setting may be needed to promote tobacco control behaviors for adolescent patients.

The Sherman Antitrust Act celebrated its centenary in 1990. To mark this milestone, experts have been surveying the historical trends of antitrust and its enforcement, the economic foundations for changes [...]

Business historians of the United States have traditionally paid considerable attention to the heavy industries in the nineteenth century and to motor vehicles and the science-based industries in the twentieth [...]

Business historians of the United States have traditionally paid considerable attention to the heavy industries in the nineteenth century and to motor vehicles and the science-based industries in the twentieth [...]