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In this short review definition, mechanism, and recent developments of the Stetter reaction, in the period last ten years from 2011 to 2021 are presented. This reaction comprises N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC)-catalyzed umpolung of aldehydes followed by their capturing with activated carbon-carbon double bonds (Michael acceptors). This work includes also progresses in the inter-molecular and intra-molecular versions and enantioselective transformations. Underscoring the recent advances in the applications of Stetter reaction in the synthesis of various heterocyclic systems and total synthesis of natural products have been also introduced.

In the biosynthesis of menaquinone in bacteria, the thiamine diphosphate-dependent enzyme MenD catalyzes the decarboxylative carboligation of alpha-ketoglutarate and isochorismate to (1R,2S,5S,6S)-2-succinyl-5-enolpyruvyl-6-hydroxycyclohex-3-ene-1-carboxylate (SEPHCHC). The regioisomer of SEPHCHC, namely (1R,5S,6S)-2-succinyl-5-enolpyruvyl-6-hydroxycyclohex-2-ene-1-carboxylate (iso-SEPHCHC), has been considered as a possible product, however, its existence has been doubtful due to a spontaneous elimination of pyruvate from SEPHCHC to 2-succinyl-6-hydroxy-2,4-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxylate (SHCHC). In this work, the regioisomer iso-SEPHCHC was distinguished from SEPHCHC by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Iso-SEPHCHC was purified and identified by NMR spectroscopy. Just as SEPHCHC remained hidden as a MenD product for more than two decades, its regioisomer iso-SEPHCHC has remained until now., ChemBioChem, 23 (18), ISSN:1439-4227, ISSN:1439-7633

Funding: Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (Grant Number(s): EP/E03795X/1, EP/S019359/1). Mechanistic studies of the triazolium ion‐catalyzed intramolecular Stetter reaction using initial rates analysis in NEt3/NEt3. HCl buffered methanol showed the reaction to be first order in catalyst and zero order in aldehyde over a broad range of aldehyde concentrations. The observed reaction rate is higher for catalysts bearing N‐aryl substituents with electron‐withdrawing groups. A concurrent, NHC‐independent substrate isomerization was also observed and found to demonstrate a first order dependence on aldehyde concentration. The reported data are consistent with deprotonation to form the Breslow intermediate being turnover‐limiting in this process. Publisher PDF

The first global method for the preparation of 3-phosphorylated-pyrroles, -furans, -thiophenes, and 4-phosphorylated 2,5-dihydropyridazines is reported. To achieve this, the first protocol for the direct synthesis of α-phosphorylated 1,4-diketones has been developed through a carbene-catalyzed Stetter reaction of vinylphosphonates and aldehydes. This is the first synthetic method for accessing 4-phosphorylated 2,5-dihydropyridazines. This process is metal-free and produces multifunctionalized heterocycles.

The total synthesis of iheyamine A from readily available ethyl 2-aminocinnamate and 5-methoxyindole-2-carboxaldehyde is described. The cyanide-catalyzed imino-Stetter reaction of an aldimine derived from ethyl 2-aminocinnamate and 5-methoxyindole-2-carboxaldehyde provided the desired unsymmetrical 2,2'-bisindole-3-acetic acid derivative. The subsequent introduction of an amino group at the C-3' position, followed by the formation of the azepine ring, completed the total synthesis of iheyamine A.

Stetter reaction between aromatic aldehydes and acrylonitrile/ethyl acrylate performing in [Bmim]Br in the presence of NaOH is described. N-Heterocyclic carbene (NHC) generates in situ is shown to be an efficient catalyst. Benzoin condensation also occured as side reaction.

The catalytic umpolung of imines remains an underdeveloped approach to reaction discovery. Herein we report an enantioselective aza-Stetter reaction that proceeds via imine umpolung using N-heterocyclic carbene catalysis. The reaction proceeds with high levels of enantioselectivity (all ≥96:4 er) and good generality (21 examples). Mechanistic studies are reported and are consistent with turnover-limiting addition of the NHC to the imine.

International audience; The first bio-inspired N-Heterocyclic Carbene (NHC)-catalyzed Stetter reaction in aqueous medium is reported with benzaldehyde and chalcone as model substrates. A screening of azolium salts as precatalysts revealed the remarkable efficiency of synthetic thiazolium salt 8 (up to 90% conversion in pure water at 75°C). The reaction was successfully extended to various simple aldehyde substrates. The effect of temperature was also investigated in order to extend the reaction at lower temperature allowing a potential application to sensitive biomolecules. This study highlighted the influence of both solvent and temperature onto 1,4 diketone 3/benzoin 4 ratio. New precatalysts 26 and 27 were designed and synthesized to explore a possible compartmentalization of the reaction in aqueous conditions. Owing to the use of inexpensive metal-free Heterocyclic Carbene (NHC) as bioinspired catalyst, we anticipate that this green strategy in aqueous conditions will be attractive for bioconjugation of many biomolecule-type aldehydes and enones derivatives.

We report a visible‐light‐mediated organocatalytic strategy for the enantioselective acyl radical conjugate addition to enals, leading to valuable 1,4‐dicarbonyl compounds. The process capitalizes upon the excited‐state reactivity of 4‐acyl‐1,4‐dihydropyridines that, upon visible‐light absorption, can trigger the generation of acyl radicals. By means of a chiral amine catalyst, iminium ion activation of enals ensures a stereoselective radical trap. We also demonstrate how the combination of this acylation process with a second catalyst‐controlled bond‐forming event allows to selectively access the full matrix of all possible stereoisomers of the resulting 2,3‐substituted 1,4‐dicarbonyl products.

The N-heterocycle carbene (NHC)-catalyzed dual Stetter cascade reaction is discovered through coupling of β-nitrostyrene with phthalaldehyde under mild conditions to furnish valuable aryl-naphthoquinones. The generality of the new reaction is validated through the development of a C-C and O-C bond forming Stetter cascade reaction using salicylaldehydes to obtain functionalized dihydroisoflavanones. The mild NHC organocatalysis is successfully employed for the construction of optically pure sugar-based naphthoquinones and dihydroisoflavanones. Herein, NHC is found as a unique and powerful organocatalyst to construct homoatomic C-C cross-coupling, heteroatomic O-C bond formation, and cascade cyclization utilizing NO2 as a leaving group at ambient temperature. A mechanistic pathway of the new metal-free catalysis is predicted on the basis of our ESI-MS study of the ongoing reaction and literature.

The Stetter reaction, a conjugate umpolung reaction, is well known for cyanide-catalyzed transformations of mostly aromatic aldehydes. Enzymatic Stetter reactions, however, have been largely unexplored, especially with respect to preparative transformations. We have investigated the kinetics of the MenD-catalyzed 1,4-addition of α-ketoglutaric acid to acrylonitrile which has shown that acrylonitrile, while an interesting candidate, is a poor substrate for MenD due to low affinity of the enzyme for this substrate. The kinetic model of the reaction was simplified to double substrate Michaelis–Menten kinetics where the reaction rate linearly depends on acrylonitrile concentration. Experiments at different initial concentrations of acrylonitrile under batch, repetitive batch, and fed-batch reactor conditions were carried out to validate the developed mathematical model. Thiamine diphosphate dependent MenD proved to be quite a robust enzyme; nevertheless, enzyme operational stability decay occurs in the reactor. The spontaneous reactivity of acrylonitrile towards polymerization was also taken into account during mathematical modeling. Almost quantitative conversion of acrylonitrile was achieved in all batch reactor experiments, while the yield of the desired product was dependent on initial acrylonitrile concentration (i.e., the concentration of the stabilizer additive). Using the optimized reactor parameters, it was possible to synthesize the product, 6-cyano-4-oxohexanoic acid, in a concentration of 250 mM. The highest concentration of product was achieved in a repetitive batch reactor experiment. A fed-batch reactor experiment also delivered promising results, especially regarding the short reaction time needed to achieve a 200 mM concentration of product. Hence, the enzymatic Stetter reaction with a highly reactive acceptor substrate can be performed on a preparative scale, which should enable similar transformations with acrylate, methacrylate, and methyl vinyl ketone.

An N-heterocyclic carbene-catalyzed intermolecular Stetter reaction of aromatic aldehydes with N-substituted itaconimides has been developed. A delicate balance between the Stetter reaction and the competing isomerization of the itaconimide double bond has been achieved in this operationally simple reaction to afford valuable new succinimide derivatives containing 1,4 and 1,5 dicarbonyl scaffolds in good to excellent yields. The reaction tolerates variable substituents on both aldehydes and N-substituted itaconimides.

A general and efficient method for the synthesis of tricyclic spirocarbocycles is described. Various cyclic enal-enones were reacted with an N-heterocyclic carbene, and an intramolecular Stetter reaction proceeded smoothly to give various tricyclic spiro-1,4-diketones in 31–72% yields. The ring size of the spiro compounds can be easily controlled using different cyclic enals and enones or by altering the length of the carbon tether.

Various benzaldehyde tethers with a cyclic enone were prepared from commercially available 2-hydroxybenzaldehydes via a three-step sequence involving triflate formation, Sonogashira cross-coupling, and regioselective hydrogenation. These substrates were then exposed to an N-heterocyclic carbene, whereupon intramolecular Stetter reaction proceeded smoothly to give various spirofused tricyclic 1,4-diketones in 30-87% yields. Furaldehyde and nicotinaldehyde derivatives also participated in the reaction under the Stetter conditions.

Two novel chiral verbenone-derived triazolium salts have been synthesized from readily available (&minus, )-verbenone and found to be efficient for the enantioselective intramolecular Stetter reaction. The approach, based on the intramolecular annulation between acyl anion equivalents and Michael acceptors, benefits from broad substrate scope, high chemical and stereochemical efficiency, and operational simplicity. Mono-, and disubstituded chromanone derivatives have been obtained in excellent yields and in a highly stereochemical manner.

An N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC)-catalyzed intramolecular Stetter reaction proceeding via the endo-fashion was the key step for the transition-metal-free and mild cross-dehydrogenative coupling of 2-cinnamoyl benzaldehydes allowing for the synthesis of 2-aryl naphthoquinones. In this transformation, the carbene generated from the triazolium salt using Na

Nucleolipids are hybrid amphiphilic low molecular weight molecules composed of two parts covalently linked: the first one being a nucleic acid, a nucleotide, a nucleoside or a nucleobase and the second a lipid. Combining the physico-chemical properties of two of the most widespread biomolecules, nucleolipids are capable of self-assemble as supramolecular structures of interest for application in the field of biomaterials. The study of the self-assembling properties of GlycoNucleoLipids, bearing a triazole moiety as a linker, demonstrated the crucial influence of the nature of the covalent linker bringing together the two parts of the nucleolipid onto the self-assembly. In this work, the synthesis of nucleolipids bearing a 1,4-diketone linker between thymidine and various lipids via the bioinspired and N-Heterocyclic Carbene organocatalyzed Stetter reaction is described. As an heteroaromatic cycle precursor, this moiety led to the formation of pyrrole skeletons via the classical Paal-Knorr reaction. The gelating properties of these original nucleolipids were evaluated and compared with the ones bearing a triazole link. Among these original synthetic nucleolipids, a lipophilic compound bearing a 1,4-diketone link exhibited the ability to form gels in oils (i.e. oleogels). A structure-properties study was realized to understand the role of each part of the molecule. This type of formulation being of particular interest for the development of lipophilic drug delivery systems, the physico-chemical properties of the oleogel were also extensively studied. The Stetter reaction exhibiting most of the « click chemistry » characteristics, eco-friendly reaction conditions were developed in aqueous media and applied to other biomolecules conjugation., Les nucléolipides sont des molécules hybrides amphiphiles de faible poids moléculaire composées de deux parties liées de façon covalente : la première est un acide nucléique, un nucléotide, un nucléoside ou une nucléobase et la seconde un lipide. En combinant les propriétés physicochimiques de deux des biomolécules parmi les plus représentées dans le vivant, les nucléolipides présentent la capacité à former des auto-assemblages supramoléculaires d’intérêt pour la conception de biomatériaux. L'étude des capacités d’auto-assemblage des GlycoNucléoLipides, qui possèdent un lien aromatique de type triazole, a démontré que la nature du lien covalent qui unit les deux parties du nucléolipide a un effet déterminant sur l’assemblage. Ce travail a porté sur l'utilisation et le développement d'une réaction de Stetter, organocatalysée par des carbènes N-hétérocycliques et bioinspirée, pour obtenir un lien de type dicétone-1,4 entre la thymidine et différents lipides. Ce motif, précurseur de cycles hétéroaromatiques, a notamment conduit à la formation de liens de type pyrrole par une réaction de type Paal-Knorr. Les propriétés gélatrices de ces nucléolipides originaux ont été comparées à celles de ceux portant un motif triazole. Parmi les nucléolipides obtenus, un composé particulièrement lipophile, porteur du lien 1,4- dicétone, a montré la capacité de former un gel dans des huiles (soit un oléogel). Une étude structurepropriétés a été effectuée pour comprendre le rôle de chaque partie de la molécule. Ce type de formulation présentant un intérêt tout particulier pour le développement de systèmes de délivrance contrôlée de substances actives lipophiles, les propriétés physicochimiques de cet oléogel ont par ailleurs été étudiées. La réaction de Stetter présentant la plupart des caractéristiques d'une réaction dite de "chimie click", des conditions de réaction plus éco-compatibles et adaptées à la fonctionnalisation d’autres biomolécules ont ensuite été développées en milieu aqueux.

The functionalization of aliphatic and aromatic C-H bonds has remained a priority in transition-metal catalysis for the last few decades. N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) have very recently been proven as an effective organocatalytic alternative toward site-selective sp(3) beta-C-H bond functionalization in aliphatic esters and related compounds. We have employed modern density functional theory computations to provide the first mechanistic insights into this entirely new form of reactivity of NHCs, leading to beta-C-H bond activation. NHC-catalyzed coupling between hydrazone and beta-phenyl propionate leading to a gamma-lactam bearing two chiral centers is reported. An interesting two-step mechanistic cascade that helps surmount the high bond dissociation energy of an otherwise inert beta-C-H bond is identified. An initial addition-elimination at the ester group installs the chiral triazolium NHC to the substrate. The deprotonation of the alpha-C-H by the departing phenoxide first furnishes an alpha-enolate intermediate. A concerted protonation at the enolate oxygen by the phenol and a beta-C-H deprotonation by the phenoxide leads to the vital nucleophilic beta-carbanion intermediate. The origin of enantioselectivity in the C-C bond formation between the si prochiral face of the nucleophilic beta-carbon and the re face of electrophilic hydrazone is traced to the differential in the C-H...pi, C-H...O and N-H...O interactions that exist in the transition states for the lower energy si,re and higher energy re,si modes in the Michael addition step. The computed enatio- and diastereoselectivities are in very good agreement with those in an earlier experimental report.

An NHC-catalyzed nitro-Stetter/elimination/Stetter reaction sequence employs nitroalkenes as latent 1,2-dication synthons providing a novel access to highly useful symmetrical and unsymmetrical 2-aryl substituted 1,4-diketone building blocks from commercially available aldehyde precursors. For less activated (aliphatic) aldehydes, a cooperative catalytic strategy has been developed via the merger of NHC and H-bonding catalysis. To further showcase the versatility of our approach, a great variety of these unprecedented 1,4-diketones are used to efficiently synthesize polysubstituted pyrroles—including those with hetaryl substituents—in good to excellent yields in a multicatalytic metal-free, four-step one-pot cascade reaction under mild, yet robust, conditions.

U ovom radu provedena je enzimska reakcija katalizirana enzimom sintaza 2-sukcinil-5-enolpiruvil-6-hidroksi-3-cikloheksen-1-karboksilne kiseline (MenD) s α-ketoglutaratom kao donorskim supstratom i akrilonitrilom kao akceptorskim supstratom, uz tiamin difosfat kao koenzim i magnezijev ion kao kofaktor. Reakcija je provedena u kotlastom reaktoru tijekom koje je praćena i aktivnost enzima. Osim toga proveden je i ponovljivi šaržni eksperiment. U ovom eksperimentu mjerena je koncentracija supstrata i produkta, te aktivnost enzima tijekom 72 sata. Nakon 24 i 48 sati u reaktor su dodani supstrati: α-ketoglutarat i akrilonitril kako bi se postigli isti početni uvjeti kao na početku reakcije. Također su provedeni i eksperimenti u kojima je ispitan utjecaj koncentracije akrilonitrila tijekom inkubacije na deaktivaciju enzima. Rezultati pokazuju da se tijekom provedbe reakcije smanjuje aktivnost enzima. U eksperimentima u kojima je praćen utjecaj koncentracije akrilonitrila na deaktivaciju enzima, rezultati pokazuju da se povećanjem koncentracije akrilonitrila smanjuje aktivnost enzima. In this work, an enzymatic reaction catalyzed by 2-succinyl-5-enolpyruvyl-6-hydroxy-3-cyclohexene-1-carboxylic acid synthase (MenD) with α-ketoglutarate as donor substrate and acrylonitrile as acceptor substrate with thiamine diphosphate as coenzyme and magnesium ion as a cofactor was carried out. The reaction was carried out in a batch reactor during which the enzyme activity was monitored. In addition, a repetitive batch experiment was carried out. In this experiment, substrate and product concentration and enzyme activity were measured over 72 hours. After 24 and 48 hours fresh substrates α-ketoglutarate and acrylonitrile were added to achieve the same initial conditions as at the beginning of the reaction but without the addition of the enzyme. Also, the influence of acrylonitrile concentration during incubation on enzyme deactivation was investigated. The results show that during the reaction enzyme activity decreases. The influence of acrylonitrile concentration on enzyme deactivation show that increasing the concentration of acrylonitrile reduces enzyme activity.

A strategy for the immobilization of the valuable triazolium carbene Rovis catalyst onto polystyrene and silica supports is presented. Initially, the catalyst activity and recyclability were tested under batch conditions in the model stereoselective intramolecular Stetter reaction leading to optically active chromanones. Good results in terms of yield (95%) and enantioselectivity (ee 81–95%) were detected for the polystyrene-supported catalyst (10 mol %), while poorer results were collected for the silica-supported analogue. Also, continuous-flow experiments were performed by fabricating the corresponding polystyrene monolithic microreactors (pressure-resistant stainless-steel columns) to prove the benefits of the heterogeneous catalysis and the flow regime observing a high stability of the catalytic bed (48 h) with unaltered conversion efficiency and stereoselectivity.

The intermolecular asymmetric Stetter reaction is a rarely found biocatalysts transformation. MenD, the second enzyme of the menaquinone biosynthetic pathway, catalyzes as a physiological reaction a Stetter-like addition of α-ketoglutarate to isochorismate. The substrate range of MenD for similar 1,4-additions is highly restricted. All other thiamine diphosphate dependent enzymes known to act as stetterases are members of the PigD enzyme subfamily, which accept aliphatic and aromatic α,β-unsaturated ketones and thioesters as Michael acceptor substrates. Here, we describe the unexpected activity of MenD with short-chain α,β-unsaturated acids and derivatives as substrates in Stetter reactions. MenD possesses a characteristic substrate range with respect to Michael acceptor substrates which is distinctly different from the classical stetterases. This provides biocatalytic access to new types of products which are not related to the products currently accessible by thiamine diphosphate dependent enzyme catalysis.

The bis(hydroxyphenyl)diamide architecture constitutes as a privileged ligand that promotes a number of catalytic asymmetric transformations in combination with rare-earth metals. A new diamide analog armed with a carbene catalytic function derived from a thiazolium unit was designed, synthesized, and applied to the catalytic asymmetric intramolecular Stetter reaction. Cooperative work between the carbene function and hydrogen bonding interactions was suggested to give the enantioenriched chroman derivatives.

N,N-Dimethylbenzimidazolium iodide catalysed benzoin condensation and Stetter reaction in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hydroxide (bmim)(OH) which acts as a basic catalyst as well as a solvent for the reactions are described. The recycled reaction media containing benzimidazolium salt can be reused for several times without significant loss of efficiency.

The intermolecular asymmetric Stetter reaction is an almost unexplored transformation for biocatalysts. Previously reported thiamine diphosphate (ThDP)-dependent PigD from Serratia marcescens is the first enzyme identified to catalyze the Stetter reaction of α,β-unsaturated ketones (Michael acceptor substrates) and α-keto acids. PigD is involved in the biosynthesis of the potent cytotoxic agent prodigiosin. Here, we describe the investigation of two new ThDP-dependent enzymes, SeAAS from Saccharopolyspora erythraea and HapD from Hahella chejuensis. Both show a high degree of homology to the amino acid sequence of PigD (39 and 51 %, respectively). The new enzymes were heterologously overproduced in Escherichia coli, and the yield of soluble protein was enhanced by co-expression of the chaperone genes groEL/ES. SeAAS and HapD catalyze intermolecular Stetter reactions in vitro with high enantioselectivity. The enzymes possess a characteristic substrate range with respect to Michael acceptor substrates. This provides support for a new type of ThDP-dependent enzymatic activity, which is abundant in various species and not restricted to prodigiosin biosynthesis in different strains. Moreover, PigD, SeAAS, and HapD are also able to catalyze asymmetric carbon-carbon bond formation reactions of aldehydes and α-keto acids, resulting in 2-hydroxy ketones.

A highly efficient and enantioselective approach to the synthesis of functionalized benzofuran-3(2H)-ones is presented. It proceeds via an intramolecular Stetter reaction using &beta, &beta, disubstituted Michael acceptors in the construction of five-membered rings with fully-substituted quaternary stereogenic centers and is promoted by terpene-derived triazolium salts. As a result, a series of chiral 2,2-disubstituted benzofuran-3(2H)-one derivatives with linear, branched, and cyclic aliphatic substitutions on the quaternary stereogenic center were obtained in high yields and with excellent enantioselectivities of up to 99% ee.

After a long history of medical and biochemical investigations of vitamin B1, N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) have recently been used as organocatalysts for a variety of synthetic reactions. This review article highlights the application of NHC-catalyzed reactions including enantioselective reactions to the heterocyclic synthesis. NHC-catalyzed benzoin condensation and Stetter reaction of ether- and amine-linked aldehydes give four- to six-membered oxygen and nitrogen heterocycles. NHC-catalyzed conjugate additions of enals to ketones and imines afford γ-lactones and γ-lactams. When the NHC-catalyzed reaction intermediates of enals are protonated, the reaction of the resulting enols with enones and ene-imines furnish formal hetero-Diels-Alder products. Acyl fluoride and esters can be activated by NHCs, and subsequent aldol and Michael reactions give β-lactones. Oxidation of intermediates derived from enals or the intermediates from ynals provide unsaturated acyl azolium which are transformed into cyclic products via subsequent nucleophilic reactions. NHCs also catalyze [2+2] cycloadditions of ketenes and other heterocumulenes and ring expansion of cyclic aldehydes.

Dicarbonyl compounds 2 carrying a phosphonate group were obtained by utilizing a dually N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) catalyzed domino reaction involving the intramolecular hydroacylation of salicyl alkynylphosphonates 1 and a subsequent intermolecular Stetter reaction with aromatic aldehyde at room temperature. In addition, 2 can also be applied for the synthesis of benzopyranopyrrole carrying a phosphonate group 4 in one pot and in moderate yield.

Herein, we describe the enantioselective construction of the 12-membered macrocyclic pyrrole core 4 of marineosin A in 5.1% overall yield from (S)-propylene oxide. The route features a key Stetter reaction to install a 1,4-diketone, which is then subjected to Paal-Knorr pyrrole synthesis and ring closing metathesis (RCM) to afford macrocycle 4. A divergence point in the synthetic scheme also enabled access to a highly functionalized spiroaminal model system 8 via an acid-mediated hydroxyketoamide cyclization strategy.

A new method for the synthesis of 2-vinylindole-3-acetic acid derivatives from aldimines, which are derived from 2-aminocinnamic acid derivatives and α,β-unsaturated aldehydes, via a cyanide-catalyzed imino-Stetter reaction is described. Various types of 2-aminocinnamic acid derivatives and α,β-unsaturated aldehydes could be used in this protocol, and the desired 2-vinyl substituted indole-3-acetic acid derivatives were obtained in high yields. This cyanide-catalyzed imino-Stetter reaction was further extended to the preparation of indole-3-acetic acid derivatives bearing a carboxylic acid functionality at the 2-position, using aldimines obtained from glyoxylates and 2-aminocinnamic acid derivatives.

Highly diastereoselective and enantioselective desymmetrization of alpha-substituted cyclohexadienones via NHC-catalyzed intramolecular Stetter reaction was realized. Amino-indanol derived triazolium salt bearing a C6F5 group was found to be the optimal catalyst precursor in the intramolecular Stetter reaction furnishing tricyclic products bearing multi-stereocenters in up to 96% yield and >99% ee.

The mechanism of the N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC)-catalyzed intramolecular Stetter reaction of salicylaldehyde 1 to yield chromanone 3 has been theoretically studied at the B3LYP/6-31G** level. This NHC-catalyzed reaction takes place through six elementary steps, which involve: (i) formation of the Breslow intermediate IN2; (ii) an intramolecular Michael-Type addition in IN2 to form the new C-C s bond; and (iii) extrusion of the NHC catalyst from the Michael adduct to yield chromanone 3. Analysis of the relative free energies in toluene indicates that while formation of Breslow intermediate IN2 involves the rate-determining step of the catalytic process, the intramolecular Michael-type addition is the stereoselectivity determining step responsible for the configuration of the stereogenic carbon a to the carbonyl of chromanone 3. An ELF analysis at TSs and intermediates involved in the Michael-type addition allows for the characterization of the electronic changes along the C-C bond-formation.

Over the past decade, N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) have been used as catalysts in a variety of C-C bond forming reactions.[1] Our group has been interested in the development of chiral NHCs as catalysts for the asymmetric intra-molecular Stetter reaction[2,3] and more recently the inter-molecular variant.[4,5] We recently reported that hetaryl aldehydes and enals react efficiently with nitroalkenes in the Stetter reaction, leading to β-nitro ketones with high enantioselectivity.[4d] Crucial to the success of this method was the development of a fluorinated triazolium salt pre-catalyst that provides significantly enhanced enantioselectivity over des-fluoro analogues.[6] Although this new catalyst system greatly expands the scope of this method, these conditions are not amenable to the use of unactivated aliphatic aldehydes. Due to their lower electrophilicity than aryl aldehydes, aliphatic aldehydes have rarely been used successfully in the asymmetric inter-molecular Stetter reaction.[7,8]

An asymmetric intermolecular Stetter reaction of enals with nitroalkenes catalyzed by chiral N-heterocyclic carbenes has been developed. The reaction rate and efficiency are profoundly impacted by the presence of catechol. The reaction proceeds with high selectivities and affords good yields of the Stetter product. Internal redox products were not observed despite of the protic conditions. The impact of catechol has been found to be general, facilitating far lower catalyst loadings than were previously achievable.

The inversion of the normal reactivity (umpolung) of aldehydes has been induced via N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) thiazol-2-ylidenes 2a or 3a, generated by simple electrolyses of solutions containing thiazolium salt 2 or 3. Accordingly, 1,4-dicarbonyl compounds have been obtained, in mild conditions and in moderate to very high yields, via 1,4-addition of the Breslow intermediates to the suitable Michael acceptor. The procedure has been performed in classical organic solvents (VOCs) as well as in room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs). The different reactivity of aliphatic aldehydes vs the one of aromatic and heteroaromatic aldehydes has been emphasized.

A cascade Stetter-aldol reaction of phthalaldehyde and Michael acceptors catalyzed by N-heterocyclic carbenes was developed. The corresponding 3-substituted-4-hydroxytetralones were obtained in moderate to good yields with good trans-selectivities. On the contrary, the separated Stetter reaction followed by aldol reaction gave 3-substituted-4-hydroxytetralones with good cis-selectivity. Oxidation or dehydration of the resulted 4-hydroxytetralone gave the corresponding naphthalenediol or naphthol derivative, respectively, in good yield.

The use of a commercially available thiazolium salt facilitatedan intramolecular Stetter reaction between an aliphatic aldehydeand an acrylate unit, which delivered a TRANS, SYN-fused bicyclic pyranone in high yieldas a single diastereomer. The pyranone was used to synthesize a TRANS, SYN, TRANS-fused polycyclic ether array andwas ring expanded to give the corresponding oxepanone.

Nature utilizes simple C2 and C3 building blocks, such as dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), and the "active aldehyde" in various enzyme-catalyzed carbon-carbon bond formations to efficiently build up complex organic molecules. In this Perspective, we describe the transition from using enantiopure chemical synthetic equivalents of these building blocks, employing our SAMP/RAMP hydrazone methodology and metalated chiral alpha-amino nitriles, to the asymmetric organocatalytic versions developed in our laboratory. Following this biomimetic strategy, the DHAP equivalent 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxan-5-one (dioxanone) has been used in the proline-catalyzed synthesis of carbohydrates, aminosugars, carbasugars, polyoxamic acid, and various sphingosines. Proline-catalyzed aldol reactions involving a PEP-like equivalent have also allowed for the asymmetric synthesis of ulosonic acid precursors. By mimicking the "active aldehyde" nucleophilic acylations in Nature catalyzed by the thiamine-dependent enzyme, transketolase, enantioselective N-heterocyclic carbene-catalyzed benzoin and Stetter reactions have been developed. Finally, based on Nature's use of domino reactions to convert simple building blocks into complex and highly functionalized molecules, we report on our development of biomimetic asymmetric multicomponent domino reactions which couple enamine and iminium catalysis.

An intramolecular Stetter reaction of vinylphosphine oxides and vinylphosphonates has been developed. Treatment of an aldehyde with a nucleophilic N-heterocyclic carbene catalyst allows for addition of an acyl anion equivalent into a vinylphosphine oxide or vinylphosphonate Michael acceptor in yields up to 99% and ee values up to 96%.