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Satellite telemetry (ST) has played a critical role in the management and conservation of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) over the last 50 years. ST data provide biological information relevant to subpopulation delineation, movements, habitat use, maternal denning, health, human-bear interactions, and accurate estimates of vital rates and abundance. Given that polar bears are distributed at low densities over vast and remote habitats, much of the information provided by ST data cannot be collected by other means. Obtaining ST data for polar bears requires chemical immobilization and application of a tracking device. Although immobilization has not been found to have negative effects beyond a several-day reduction in activity, over the last few decades opposition to immobilization and deployment of satellite-linked radio collars has resulted in a lack of current ST data in many of the 19 recognized polar bear subpopulations. Here, we review the uses of ST data for polar bears and evaluate its role in addressing 21st century conservation and management challenges, which include estimation of sustainable harvest rates, understanding the impacts of climate warming, delineating critical habitat, and assessing potential anthropogenic impacts from tourism, resource development and extraction. We found that in subpopulations where ST data have been consistently collected, information was available to estimate vital rates and subpopulation density, document the effects of sea-ice loss, and inform management related to subsistence harvest and regulatory requirements. In contrast, a lack of ST data in some subpopulations resulted in increased bias and uncertainty in ecological and demographic parameters, which has a range of negative consequences. As sea-ice loss due to climate warming continues, there is a greater need to monitor polar bear distribution, habitat use, abundance, and subpopulation connectivity. We conclude that continued collection of ST data will be critically important for polar bear management and conservation in the 21st century and that the benefits of immobilizing small numbers of individual polar bears in order to deploy ST devices significantly outweigh the risks.

Denne rapporten sammenstiller kunnskap om forurensningstilstanden i forvaltningsplanområdene Barentshavet, Norskehavet og Nordsjøen/Skagerrak, med hovedvekt på miljøgifter og radioaktiv forurensning. Rapporten oppsummerer resultater fra overvåkning av Overvåkingsgruppens indikatorsett, som publiseres på miljostatus.no, det vil si 43 indikatorer for forurensning og fire indikatorer for potensielt forurensende menneskelig aktivitet i havområdene. Rapporten inneholder også annen relevant kunnskap. Det er også gjort en evaluering av indikatorsettet og de ulike indikatorenes egnethet til å vurdere tilstand, utvikling og effekter på mattrygghet og miljøkvalitet.

With the current possible presence of thousands of PFAS compounds in industrial emissions, there is an increasing need to assess the impacts of PFAS regulation of conventional PFAS on one hand and the exposure to emerging and yet unknown PFAS on the other. Today’s analytical methodologies using targeted approaches are not sufficient to determine the complete suite of PFAS present. To evaluate the presence of unknown PFAS, we investigated in this study the occurrence of an extended range of target PFAS in various species from the marine and terrestrial Norwegian environment, in relation to the extractable organic fluorine (EOF), which yields the total amount of organic fluorine. The results showed a varying presence of extractable fluorinated organics, with glaucous gull eggs, otter liver and polar bear plasma showing the highest EOF and a high abundance of PFAS as well. The targeted PFAS measurements explained 1% of the organic fluorine for moose liver as the lowest and 94% for otter liver as the highest. PFCAs like trifluoro acetic acid (TFA, reported semi-quantitatively), played a major role in explaining the organic fluorine present. Emerging PFAS as the perfluoroethylcyclohexane sulfonate (PFECHS), was found in polar bear plasma in quantifiable amounts for the first time, confirming earlier detection in arctic species far removed from emission sources. To enable a complete organic fluorine mass balance in wildlife, new approaches are needed, to uncover the presence of new emerging PFAS as cyclic- or ether PFAS together with chlorinated PFAS as well as fluorinated organic pesticides and pharmaceuticals.

The Arctic is warming rapidly, with concomitant sea ice losses and ecosystem changes. The animals most vulnerable to Arctic food web changes are long-lived and slow-growing such as marine mammals, which may not be able to adapt rapidly enough to respond to changes in their resource bases. To determine the current extent and sources of these resource bases, we examined isotopic and trophic niches for marine mammals in the European Arctic using skin carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ 15N) stable isotope (SI) compositions from 10 species: blue, fin, humpback, minke, sperm and white whales, bearded and ringed seals, walruses and polar bears, and dietary fatty acids (FAs) in polar bears, walruses and most of the whale species listed here. SI values showed clear species separation by trophic behaviour and carbon sources. Bearded seals, walruses and white whales had the smallest isotopic niches; these species are all resident High Arctic species and are likely to be particularly vulnerable to changes in Arctic ecosystems. We found clear separation between FA groupings driven by pelagic, benthic and planktonic/algal sources: pelagic FAs in all whales, benthic FAs in walruses, and copepod/algae/ dinoflagellate FAs in polar bears, with some polar bear compositions approaching those of the whales and walruses. There is strong niche partitioning between study species with minimal functional redundancy, which could impact Arctic ecosystem structure and connectivity if populations of these large nutrient vectors are reduced or lost.

I rapporten dekkes tre hovedtemaer: (1) Dominerende trekk i status og utvikling i økosystemet i Barentshavet siden 2016 med vekt på å beskrive hvordan sentrale prosesser påvirker tilstanden; (2) en mer detaljert beskrivelse av status og utvikling for de ulike komponentene i økosystemet; og (3) en beskrivelse av fiskeriforvaltningen i Barentshavet.

Accepted manuscript version. Published version available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.11.097. Licensed CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Marine mammals in the Barents Sea region have among the highest levels of contaminants recorded in the Arctic and the Atlantic walrus (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) is one of the most contaminated species within this region. We therefore investigated the relationships bewteen blubber concentrations of lipophilic persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and plasma concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and markers of endocrine and immune functions in adult male Atlantic walruses (n = 38) from Svalbard, Norway. To do so, we assessed plasma concentrations of five forms of thyroid hormones and transcript levels of genes related to the endocrine and immune systems as endpoints; transcript levels of seven genes in blubber and 23 genes in blood cells were studied. Results indicated that plasma total thyroxine (TT4) concentrations decreased with increasing blubber concentrations of lipophilic POPs. Blood cell transcript levels of genes involved in the function of T and B cells (FC like receptors 2 and 5, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein 4 and protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 22) were increased with plasma PFAS concentrations. These results suggest that changes in thyroid and immune systems in adult male walruses are linked to current levels of contaminant exposure.

English version of the NPI report no.137 (2012).

Denne rapporten gir en oppdatering av status for miljøgifter som inngår i overvåkningssystemet MOSJ. Miljøgiftene er avgrenset til organiske miljøgifter, tungmetaller og radioaktive stoffer. Rapporten tar for seg status, trender og effekter for miljøgiftene og gir råd for videre overvåkning. Geografisk er rapporten avgrenset til Svalbard og Jan Mayen med omkringliggende havområder.

Norske spekkhoggere (Orcinus orca) er som følge av deres trofiske nivå og føde blant de mest kontaminerte marine pattedyrene i verden. Akkumulering av persistente organiske forbindelser (POPs) kan føre til forstyrrelser av biokjemiske prosesser på cellulært nivå som kan ha alvorlige innvirkninger på populasjonene. I løpet av det siste tiåret er det lagt økt innsats i å etablere in vitro modellsystem for marine pattedyr med den hensikt å kunne studere hvilke konsenkvenser miljøgiftene kan ha på dyrene. Målet med denne masteroppgaven var å etablere en stabil 2D cellekultur med primære fibroblaster derivert fra vevsprøver tatt av norske fritt-levende spekkhogger gjennom å optimalisere kultiveringsforholdene. Primære dermale celler med fibroblast-typisk morfologi ble isolert og identifisert som fibroblaster via immunohistokjemi med primære vimentin antistoffer. Cellemorfologien ble også karakterisert med DAPI og Phalloidin farging av cellekjernen og intermediære aktinfilamenter. De isolerte spekkhogger fibroblastene ble dyrket i ulike kultiveringsforhold, med Dulbecco′s Modified Eagle′s Medium/Nutrient Mixture F-12 medium med høy eller lav glukosekonsentrasjon and utvalgte supplementeringer. Vi testet ulike konsentrasjoner av fibroblast vekstfaktor 2, fetalt kalveserum eller hesteserum, ikke-essensielle aminosyrer, askorbinsyre og 2-mercaptoetanol antioksidanter og gelatin eller laminin overflate behandlinger for å undersøke effekten av de ulike parameterene alene og i kombinasjon på cellevekst og cellemetabolisme. Celleproliferasjon og metabolise ble målt kvantitativt ved celletellinger og metabolittanalyser av glukose konsum og laktatakkumulering. Vi støtte på utfordringer, som begrenset tilgang på vevsmateriale og celler, saktevoksende celler og lav replikativ kapasitet og tidlig irreversibel celledvale (senescence), som er vanlig med primære hvalcellekulturer. Senescente celler ble bekreftet med β-galaktosidase senescent analyse. Friske, prolifererende fibroblaster ble også idenfisert via immunohistokjemi med primære Ki-67 antistoffer. Tilsats av fibroblast vekstfaktor resulterte i betydelig økning i proliferasjon ved 1 ng/mL konsentrasjon og den optimale konsentrasjonen var 2 ng/mL. De beste parameterene for cellevekst ble kobinert og bestod av 2 ng/mL fibroblast vekstfaktor, 15 % fetalt kalveserum, 5 % hesteserum og 0.1 mM 2-mercaptoetanol. Med det optimaliserte mediet oppnådde vi 20 passasjer med primære fibroblaster fra spekkhoggere uten å se tegn til reduksjon i vekstrate. Populasjonsdoblingstiden ble beregnet til å være 40 timer. Den etablerte cellekulturen ble videre brukt til å måle cytotoksisk effekt av en miks med de 10 vanligste miljøgiftene som er målt i spekket hos norske spekkhoggere. Vi fant en dødelighet på 25 % for den høyeste eksponerte konsentrasjonen på 202.1 μg/mL, tilsvarene 50X den målte konsentrasjonen i spekket. Flere POPs, blant annet polyklorerte bifenyler og p,p’-DDT er kjent for å forstyrre cellulære mekanismer ved å binde seg til ulike reseptorer som aktivere og endrer genuttrykk i cellene. Videre forskning vil være nødvendig for å skaffe mer kunnskap om hvordan spekkhoggere påvirkes av miljøgifter på genetisk og biokjemisk nivå. Due to their trophic level and sources of prey, top predator Norwegian killer whales (Orcinus orca) are among the most contaminated marine species throughout the world. Accumulation of persistant organic pollutants (POPs) may have adverse effects on killer whale populations, by disrupting vital biochemical processes. Over the last decade, increased effort has been put into establishing in vitro model systems for marine mammals to assess the potential hazardous effects inflicted by environmental toxicants. The aim of this thesis was to establish a robust 2D cell culture with primary fibroblast cells derived from Norwegian killer whale skin tissue samples from free-ranging specimens by optimizing the cultivation conditions. Primary dermal cells exhibiting the typical spindle-shape of fibroblasts were isolated and identified as fibroblasts via primary vimentin antibody immunolabellering. Cell morphology was characterized with DAPI and phalloidin staining. The isolated killer whale fibroblasts were cultivated in various cultivation conditions, using Dulbecco′s Modified Eagle′s Medium/Nutrient Mixture F-12 media with high or low concentration of glucose and varying selected supplementations. We tested different concentrations of fibroblast growth factor 2, fetal bovine serum or horse serum, non-essential amino acids, ascorbic acid and 2-Mercaptoethanol antioxidants, and gelatin or laminin surface coatings, to investigate the effect on cell growth and cell metabolism by the different parameters indiviually and in combinations. Cell proliferation and metabolism was measured by cell counting and metabolite analysis of glucose consumption and lactate accumulation. Common challenges associated with cetacean cell cultures were encountered, including limitation of cell sources, slow cell proliferation rates and senescence, which was confirmed in killer whale fibroblasts with the β-galactosidase senescence assay. Immunhistochemistry was successfully applied using primary Ki-67 antibody to identify proliferating fibroblast cells. FGF supplementation increased proliferation significantly at 1 ng/mL and an optimal concentration of 2 ng/mL. The optimized media composed of bFGF 2 ng/ml supplemented with 15 % FBS and 5 % horse serum and 2-Mercaptoethanol antioxidant, maintained a killer whale cell culture for 20 passages with a cell population doubling time of 40 hours without showing signs of reduced proliferation or senescence. The established cell culture was further used to assess cytotoxic effects of a cocktail which contained the most common POPs found in killer whale blubber after 48 hours exposure. A 25% loss in cell metabolism was detected in killer whale fibroblasts at the highest exposure concentration of 50X (202.1 μg/mL) the measured concentration in killer whale blubber with the CellTiter-Glo assay, while no cytotoxicity was detected with LDH release assay. Several POPs, including PCBs and p,p’-DDT, are known to bind to several receptors activating and changing gene expression and by so disrupting cellular mechanism. Further research is necessary to increase our knowledge about how killer whales are affected by environmental toxicants on genetic and biochemical level.

Recent evidence shows that temporal changes of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Arctic ecosystems are not only due to emission patterns and regulations; environment-related changes in prey availability and long-range transport may also influence concentrations of these compounds in tissues of Arctic predators. Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) in Svalbard, Norway, scavenge and hunt opportunistically for variable prey items throughout the year. In this study, temporal trends of POPs in arctic foxes from Svalbard were updated. Organochlorinated pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs) and brominated flame retardants (polybrominated diphenyl ethers [PDBEs] and hexabromocyclododecane [HBCDD]) were analysed in total of 209 liver samples from 1997 to 2019. Stable isotope values (13C, 15N) in muscle tissue were used as proxies for feeding habits on marine versus terrestrial food and trophic position respectively. Reindeer carcasses, size of geese population and sea ice extent were used as proxies for food availability. Non-linear additive models were used to analyze temporal changes of POPs in relation to variation in feeding habits, food availability, body condition and concentrations of POPs in air from Svalbard. Measured POP changes were compared to changes corrected for temporal variation in diet and food availability, to investigate the potential effect of direct or indirect environment-related changes on POPs. All contaminants increased with higher trophic position and marine diet. All contaminants were lower in fat than lean individuals apart from BDE-47. HCB concentrations decreased when reindeer carcasses were abundant and increased with increasing sea ice extent. Changes in concentrations for contaminants showed a general decline through the whole study period, which is in accordance with the decrease of PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in Arctic biota during the last 20 to 30 years. All our estimated changes per year for adjusted and measured concentrations were similar among contaminants, with the exception for BDE-47 which showed a higher rate of decline compared to other contaminants when adjusted for covariates. HCB changes per year were lower when adjusted for covariates, with overlapping confidence intervals, meaning that changes in diet and food availability in arctic foxes could non-significantly affect the temporal changes of contaminants.

Several persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have the ability to interfere with the thyroid hormone (TH) system in arctic mammals. This endocrine system is crucial for adapting to a changing environment, and it is an important regulator of growth, thermoregulation and metabolism. Seasonal variations in prey availability forces the polar bear (Ursus maritimus) to fast in longer periods, and consequently this causes seasonal variations in their body condition. Fasting has been related to depressed TH concentrations and redistribution of POPs from the adipose tissue to target organs. However, fasting (i.e. season) is rarely considered in studies examining TH-POP relationships. Therefore, it was aimed to examine concentrations and relationships between THs and POPs in free-ranging female polar bears in different seasons (spring or autumn) and reproductive status groups (solitary, with cubs of the year, or with yearlings). A total of 112 blood samples were collected in April and September 2012 and 2013 in Svalbard, Norway. Plasma concentrations of total triiodotyronine (TT3), free triiodotyronine (FT3), total thyroxine (TT4), and free thyroxine (FT4) were analysed. Concentrations of 52 individual POPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs), hydroxylated PCBs (OH-PCBs), and hydroxylated PBDEs (OH-PBDEs), were also analysed in the plasma. The results showed seasonal and status differences in TH concentrations, and to a lesser degree in POP concentrations. THs were generally higher in spring compared to autumn, and higher in solitary females compared to females caring for offspring, which was explained by fasting status. Variations in POP concentrations could be related to body condition, which did not necessarily reflect the fasting status. FT3 was negatively related to ∑PCB, the sum of OCPs and PBDEs ( ∑PESTBDE ) and ∑PFAS. The ratio TT3:FT3 was positively correlated to ∑PCB and ∑PFAS, and TT4:FT4 was positively correlated to ∑PFAS. Seasonal differences in the TH-POP relationships were found for TT4:FT4-∑PFAS, TT4:TT3-∑PESTBDE, in addition to TT4:TT3-∑PFAS. In summary, the results of this study indicated that POPs may interfere with TH concentrations in polar bears, and they may be more sensitive to thyroid disruption in certain seasons. Altogether, the results emphasise the importance of accounting for environmental and biological variables, such as season and reproductive status, when examining variations of TH and POP concentrations and their relationships in arctic mammals.

Few previous studies have reported on levels of clinical-chemical parameters (CCPs) in polar bears (Ursus maritimus), and to date, only one study has investigated levels of CCPs and how they are related to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in this species. The present study investigate levels of CCPs and how they vary between seasons, reproductive status, body condition (BCI) and age. In addition, the present study investigate how CCPs are related to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), their hydroxylated metabolites (OH-PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). This was done by analyzing plasma samples from female polar bears (n = 111) from Svalbard, Norway, sampled during spring (April) and autumn (September) in 2012 and 2013. The CCPs analyzed were: cholesterol (CHOL), high-density lipoprotein (HDLP), triglycerides (TG), aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT), alanine aminotransferase (ALAT), γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT), creatine kinase (CK), potassium (K), and the ratio of urea and creatinine (UCR). Linear mixed effect models and multivariate statistics were used to investigate the data. There were found seasonal differences for UCR, CK, TG. The lipid-related CCPs (CHOL, HDLP, TG) were positively correlated, as were the liver enzymes (ASAT, ALAT, GGT). All PFASs were inter-correlated and thus summed, as were five of eight OH-PCBs. ∑PFAS was positively correlated with each lipid-related CCP, as were several other individual POPs. ∑OH-PCB was negatively correlated with the liver enzymes. The levels of CCPs were comparable to previous studies. The seasonal difference seen in UCR supports previous studies linking UCR to fasting/feeding status. The relationships between CCPs and POPs support previous studies linking PFAS exposure to lipid metabolism. It also supports previous studies linking POPs to hepatic dysfunction.

The effect of body condition on the distribution and composition of 16 perfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs) in liver, blood, kidney, adipose tissue and muscle of Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) from Svalbard was investigated. Quantifiable concentrations of the PFASs were found in all samples (n=18). Overall, PFASs concentrations were highest in liver, followed by blood and kidney, while lowest concentrations were found in adipose tissue and muscle. Lean foxes had higher concentrations of ∑PFASs and several individual compounds in adipose tissue. Higher concentrations of perfluorodecanoic acid and perfluoroheptane sulfonic acid in liver, kidney and blood were found in lean foxes, and perfluorononanoic acid concentrations in liver and blood increased with decreasing body condition. The lowest ratio between perfluorooctane sulfonamide and its metabolite perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) was in liver, muscle and kidney while significantly higher proportions were found in adipose tissue and blood. Kidney was the organ containing most branched PFOS (32 % of sum linear and branched PFOS), while the remaining tissues had ~20 % of branched PFOS. Arctic mammals have large variability in fat content, and increased concentration of PFASs in target organs of individuals with poor body condition may increase the possibility of metabolic disruption.

The present study investigates concentrations and temporal trends of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) from Svalbard, Norway, adjusted for sex, age, body condition, diet, reindeer mortality and sea ice coverage. Number of reindeer carcasses in Adventdalen and sea ice coverage of Isfjorden in the spring preceding the trapping season were used as indexes for climate influenced food availability between years. We analysed liver of 100 foxes from Svalbard, collected in 1997/98, 1998/99, 1999/00, 2001/02, 2002/03, 2003/04 and 2010/11 for concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs; PCB -28, -52, -101, -118, -138, -153 and -180), chlordanes (cis-chlordane, trans-nonachlor and oxychlordane), p-p’-DDT, p-p’-DDE, HCB, mirex and β-HCH. The POPs found in highest concentrations were oxychlordane, PCB-180 and PCB-153. We found evidence for a temporal decrease in ∑PCBs (PCB -118, -138, -153, -180), and ∑chlordanes (trans-nonachlor and oxychlordane) when controlling for possible confounding variables. We also found evidence for an effect of body condition and δ13C on the POP concentrations, as thinner foxes and foxes feeding from the marine food web had significantly higher levels of POPs. There was no evidence for effects of sex, age, reindeer mortality and sea ice coverage on the concentrations of POPs, although increased reindeer mortality had a non-significant negative effect on all the POPs analysed. This study shows that correcting for body condition and diet is vital when investigating temporal trends of POPs in biota. It also illustrates some of the difficulties of investigating POP concentrations in an arctic predator living in an environment influenced by climatic variations.