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As a result of social change, the issues, such as the complexity of family structure and increasing student problems, are becoming more complicated. Both schools and parents have high expectations of teachers and expect them to solve the problems. Considering the many different factors involved in this issue, this could lead to a psychological and physiological imbalance in teachers, especially in relation to their emotions which results in role ambiguity. The participants of this study consisted of teachers in business administration departments of universities in China. During the data collection, 450 copies of the questionnaire were distributed. A total of 363 valid copies were retrieved, with a retrieval rate of 81%. It can be concluded that the results of this study can help national university faculty present professional spirit and attitude toward the professional service, which in turn promotes the standard of national education in universities.

Like the chief executive officer (CEO), the chief financial officer (CFO) is an important corporate player. However, compared to the role of CEOs, research on the factors influencing corporate innovation has paid very little attention to the role of CFOs. Based on the perspective of role theory, we measure CFO role performance by organizational identification to explore the role of CFOs in corporate innovation. Employing the availability of CFO organizational identification data from a survey of listed firms in China, we find that: (1) CFO organizational identification is negatively associated with innovation output in state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and positively associated with innovation output in non-state-owned enterprises (non-SOEs); (2) corporate misconduct experience positively moderates the relationship between CFO organizational identification and innovation in SOEs; (3) CFO financial industry experience positively moderates the relationship between CFO organizational identification and innovation in non-SOEs. Our results show that CFOs play the supervisor role in innovation in SOEs and the supporter role in innovation in non-SOEs. Our research provides theoretical and practical references for companies to sustainably drive innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

本研究旨在編製高中學生角色期望量表，進而建構高中學生角色期望的層面。藉由文獻探討擬定量表初稿，再送請專家審查，並經探索性因素分析與驗證性因素分析後完成量表編製。探索性因素分析、驗證性因素分析均以高中學生、高中教師及社會人士為樣本，樣本數分別為582人與1,509人。研究發現：一、「高中學生角色期望量表」具效度、信度，且模式與資料適配適度為可接受；二、「高中學生角色期望量表」具跨三群組樣本的測量恆等性；三、高中學生角色期望包含社會參與、自我形塑、素養陶冶、探索學習、德行養成及職業準備共六個層面。 This study development inventory and dimensions for the role expectations of high-school students. The inventory was constructed according to a literature review, expert reviews, an exploratory factor analysis of 582 participants, and a confirmatory factor analysis of 1,509 participants. The participants consisted of high-school students, high-school teachers, and citizens. The results of this study are summarized by the following: (1) The developed inventory is valid and reliable, and the model-data fit was acceptable according to both exploratory and confirmatory analyses. (2) According to multigroup analysis, measurement invariance of the inventory exists across the three groups of high-school students, high-school teachers, and citizens. (3) The inventory includes six dimensions—namely society participation, self-construction, literacy cultivation, exploring learning, moral development, and occupation training.

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This article, in the field of the sociology of organizations and ergonomic psychology, highlights, following the results of a doctoral research based on the inductive method of grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 2010 ), three profiles of teacher trainers in relation to the prescribed more equal. It questions the standards in teacher training and the possibly rhetorical value of a current prescription claiming more equality, or even integration / inclusion. It will mention self-prescription time, between free will and normative constraints with regard to teacher trainers in tertiary environments. This article, in the field of Sociology of Organizations and Ergonomic Psychology, highlights, following the results of a doctoral research based on the inductive method of the anchored theory (Glaser and Strauss, 2010), three profiles of teacher trainers in their relationship to the more equal prescriptions. It questions the standards in teacher education and the possible rhetorical value of a current prescription calling for greater equality or even integration / inclusion. It will refer to selfprescriptive time, between free choice and normative constraints for teacher educators in tertiary settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on empirical survey data, this paper uses concepts from sociotechnical theory and role theory to explore the effects of stress created by information and computer technology (ICT)--that is, "technostress"--on role stress and on individual productivity. We first explain different ways in which ICTs can create stress in users and identify factors that create technostress. We next propose three hypotheses: (1) technostress is inversely related to individual productivity, (2) role stress is inversely related to individual productivity, and (3) technostress is directly related to role stress. We then use structural equation modeling on survey data from ICT users in 223 organizations to test the hypotheses. The results show support for them. Theoretically, the paper contributes in three ways. First, the different dimensions of technostress identified here add to existing concepts on stress experienced by individuals in organizations. Second, by showing that technostress inversely affects productivity, the paper reinforces that failure to manage the effects of ICT-induced stress can offset expected increases in productivity. Third, validation of the positive relationship between technostress and role stress adds a new conceptual thread to literature analyzing the relationship between technology and organizational roles and structure. In the practical domain, the paper proposes a diagnostic tool to evaluate the extent to which technostress is present in an organization and suggests that the adverse effects of technostress can be partly countered by strategies that reduce role conflict and role overload. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The last work of English humanist Henry Parker, Lord Morley, "An Account of Miracles Performed by the Holy Eucharist," contained valuable advice for the realm's first ruling queen, Mary Tudor. Cognizant of the special challenges facing a female ruler, Morley delineated guidelines enabling the new queen to combine an active public life with traditional pious devotions to which Mary was committed. He drew examples from recent and distant English history, citing the regimens of Mary's own great-grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort and of twelfth-century queen Edith Maude. In direct response to political and economic dilemmas, Morley's work assured the queen of the rectitude of her religious stance. Morley's historical examples attempted a complex balance, reinforcing the power of the monarchy and moderating its harshest instincts. Morley also cited examples from his own life, not only to describe a proper role model for the queen but to explain and find forgiveness for his survival through more than seven decades of Tudor rule. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates how male and female consumers in the Czech Republic respond to sex role portrayals in advertisements for a fictional cell phone service. Special emphasis is placed on integrating consumer prejudices and emotions into an incongruity-resolution framework. Prejudices were found to moderate effects of sex role incongruity on the emotional dimensions approval and disapproval. Surprise, the third emotional dimension, was directly affected by role incongruity. Downstream effects included positive (approval) and negative (disapproval, surprise) influences on attitude toward the ad. Extensions into other cultural settings and more in-depth examinations of the elaboration and processing paths, including effects on memory, are suggested for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the relationships between multiple life roles, psychological well-being, and managerial skills in two studies of managerial women. Qualitative results suggested that the roles women play in their personal lives provide psychological benefits, emotional advice and support, practice at multitasking, relevant background, opportunities to enrich interpersonal skills, and leadership practice that enhance effectiveness in the management role. Quantitative results indicated that multiple role commitment positively related to life satisfaction, self-esteem, and self-acceptance. Commitment to multiple roles was also related to interpersonal and task-related managerial skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the role of professional associations in a changing, highly institutionalized organizational field and suggests that they play a significant role in legitimating change. A model of institutional change is outlined, of which a key stage is ‘theorization,’ the process whereby organizational failings are conceptualized and linked to potential solutions. Regulatory agencies, such as professional associations, play an important role in theorizing change, endorsing local innovations and shaping their diffusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Customers' evaluations of quality and satisfaction are critical inputs in the development of marketing strategies. Given the increasingly common practice of asking for such evaluations, buyers of products (e.g., cars) and services (e.g., hotels, educational programs/courses) often know in advance that they subsequently will be asked to provide their evaluations. In a series of field and laboratory studies, the authors demonstrate that expecting to evaluate leads to less favorable quality and satisfaction evaluations and reduces customers' willingness to purchase and recommend the evaluated services. The negative bias of expected evaluations is observed when actual quality is either low or high, and it persists even when buyers are told explicitly to consider both the positive and negative aspects. The authors examine three possible explanations for this systematic bias, which are referred to as negativity enhancement, role expectation, and vigilant processing. The findings are most consistent with the negativity enhancement account, indicating that unless buyers begin the evaluation task with low expectations, they tend to focus during consumption primarily on negative aspects of product/service quality. The article concludes with a discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of this research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Role modeling is widely thought to be a principal vehicle for acquiring the virtues. Yet, little is known about role modeling as a process. This paper surveys the behavioral sciences for insights about how one person can find the actions of another person so inspirational that the person attempts to reproduce the behavior in question. In general, such inspiration occurs when an observer sees a model similar to herself, wrestling with a problem she is having, such that the model's accomplishments are seen as attainable. When the behavior modeled is moral, additional complications arise, not the least of which is the contemporary skepticism about anyone held up as a hero. The paper concludes with some suggestions about how organizations can facilitate the development of the virtues through role modeling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although much attention has been paid to the knowledge, skills, abilities, and experiences that an individual brings when he or she transitions into an organizational role, little attention has been given to the history of the enactment of the role into which he or she is transitioning. This article examines how the behaviors of a predecessor influence the expectations for the successor, the successor's role behaviors, and the evaluations made of the successor. A new construct, role residual, is introduced as a conceptual link between the behaviors of the predecessor and the behaviors and evaluations of the successor. A role residual is the set of expectations held by a role sender, associated with a position in an organization, which is left behind by a predecessor. A model of the antecedents and outcomes of role residual is presented and implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the unique characteristics of the industrial salesman's role has stimulated much recent research, this uniqueness requires the development and use of occupation-specific measurement instruments. A job satisfaction measure specifically designed for industrial salesmen is presented together with norms, a detailed description of the methodology employed, and techniques to evaluate the new instrument's factor structure, reliability, and construct validity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research perspectives from role theory are examined with a large sample of purchasing professionals in an effort to increase understanding of industrial buyer behavior and the buying environment. An integrative model of the antecedents and the consequences of role stress fits the data well. The results suggest that an awareness of the nature and influence of role stress in the buying context can be of value to marketing professionals, especially sales representatives and marketing/product managers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses large industrial corporations, the contribution of corporate marketing research departments, the role of Market Research (MR) Directors, and some of the role conflicts these directors encounter. The article refers to a 1975 study into the incidence, size, and organizational location of Marketing Research. The article discusses the study method and presents and analyzes the data related to Directors' Satisfaction Items, Superiors' and Users' Responses to Effectiveness Items, and responses to Role Expectation Items. The author gives marketing research departments a "B" grade and presents several interpretations of the data, including concerns about a lack of creativity and initiative and conflict about the role MR Directors play within the organization.

The article discusses role conflict and role ambiguity in salesmen, and attempts to determine whether some of these aspects of a sales position are a result of management. Role conflict arises when the salesman faces incompatible job demands from his organizational superiors, customers, family members, or other role partners. Role ambiguity is a result of the salesman not knowing the performance levels expected of him. The author develops several hypotheses on this subject and gives a methodology with which he tests the hypotheses. Based on the results, several conclusions are made.

This paper examines the impact of women's proportional representation in the upper echelons of organizations on hierarchical and peer relationships among professional women at work. I propose that social identity is the principal mechanism through which the representation of women influences their relationships. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses of interview and questionnaire data are used to compare women's same-sex relationships in firms with relatively low and high proportions of senior women. Compared with women in firms with many senior women, women in firms with few senior women were less likely to experience common gender as a positive basis for identification with women, less likely to perceive senior women as role models with legitimate authority, more likely to perceive competition in relationships with women peers, and less likely to find support in these relationships. These results challenge person-centered views about the psychology of women's same-sex work relationships and suggest that social identity may link an organization's demographic composition with individuals' workplace experiences? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organizational roles provide actors with moral constructs for the enactment of power. Indeed, actors evaluate each other's acts of power in part on the willingness to obey role prescriptions. For a person to sustain power in an organizational setting he or she must self-consciously exercise power so as to signify the awareness of role obligations. Organizational power, paradoxically, stems from obedience to roles. The authors illustrate these points with interview data from a study of the gubernatorial administrations of Ronald Reagan and Jerry Brown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study integrated a number of streams of research on the antecedents of innovation to develop and test a model of individual innovative behavior. Hypothesizing that leadership, individual problem-solving style, and work group relations affect innovative behavior directly and indirectly through their influence on perceptions of the climate for innovation, we used structural equation analysis to test the parameters of the proposed model simultaneously and also explored the moderating effect of task characteristics. The model explained approximately 37 percent of the variance in innovative behavior. Task type moderated the relationship between leader role expectations and innovative behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study addressed the problem of task revision, a virtually unresearched issue in the work performance literature. We defined task revision as action taken to correct a faulty procedure, an inaccurate job description, or a role expectation that is dysfunctional for an organization. Two experiments were constructed to measure task revision and test for its determinants. Results showed that goal setting inhibited task revision: instructions to "do your best" were superior to a specific goal. Facilitators of task revision were the salience of alternatives and being in a supervisory position with accountability pressures. We discuss the implications of these results in terms of the functions of counter-role behavior for organizations and the need to broaden the construct of work performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Performance evaluation when in-role and out-of-role behavior are manipulated in a male sex-typed occupation was investigated. Level of performance (high and low), mode of behavior (masculine and feminine), and performer sex were manipulated. Results indicate that performance evaluation is a winnowing process wherein raters assign ratings on the level of performance and value masculine over feminine modes of behavior, especially for female high performers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an investigation of the relationship between subordinates' perceptual congruence (SPC) and sex on subordinates' performance appraisals of their immediate managers, SPC was found to be significantly related to subordinate evaluations of their managers within particular manager-subordinate sex combinations. These results are explained in terms of reinforcement theory and the role episode model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Subjects evaluated hypothetical male and female applicants for managerial positions. Half required supervision of predominately female subordinates; half the supervision of predominately male subordinates. Females expected higher performance than males. Males and females favored applicants whose sex matched the subordinates. Thus, the sex-role context, not merely the applicant's sex, may induce selection discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of different operationalizations of the path-goal theory's leader behavior constructs are examined. The results indicate that some of the inconsistent and non-supportive research findings pertaining to the theory are due to inadequacies and differences in operationalizations of the theory's leader behavior variables. Suggestions for future tests are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study which looked at the relationships between role perception and employee satisfaction and performance. Participation in decision making was more effective when there were higher levels of role conflict than lower levels of role conflict. The same pattern held true for role ambiguity. Role ambiguity and participation and role conflict and participation did significantly interact at lower levels of an organization. Overall role conflict was a more important variable than role ambiguity.

The satisfaction of research professors depends on the university administrator's leadership style, role model, and perceived ability to reward the professors' efforts, with significant differences in these factors among academic disciplines. Professors' productivity was not influenced by the research administrators' style, role model and reward efforts in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canonical analysis established a significant relationship between task design and affective response measures for 784 middle-level executives. Functional specialty moderated the relationship. It was suggested that the moderating effect may be explained in terms of environmental elements which cause the worker to focus on or off of task design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper demonstrates the applicability of path analysis to the study of psychological success in work organizations by reanalyzing three previously published studies. Two examples test and estimate two causal models of psychological success. The final example demonstrates that the utility of path analysis is dependent upon adequate theoretical formulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relationships between positive and punitive leader rewards and employee role conflict and ambiguity, expectancies, and job satisfaction were investigated. The data showed positive leader rewards to be more strongly related to role and satisfaction variables. Punitive leader rewards were more strongly related to effort-to-performance expectancy. Implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which explored role differences in relationships between degree of role clarity and various personal outcomes and in the moderating effects of need for clarity for supervisory and nonsupervisory roles. The methodology of the study is described, as well as the administration of questionnaires and scales used in the study. A discussion of the findings of the study and implications for future research are also presented, including scales displaying the results of the research.

The article measures the importance of ethics of salespeople in marketing as a source of role conflict. Ethics of salespeople is an area of marketing that draws constant public criticism. According to reports of few researchers, salespeople wanted more guidelines to help them resolve ethical questions. This implies that salespeople and sales managers must agree on what ethical problems exist. Every institution has a set of expectations among its participants, who occupy distinct role positions, their interactions constituting the personal aspect of marketing. This is "the part of marketing" in which ethical considerations arise. When disagreement between expectations occurs, role conflict can result. When members of a group hold differing expectations, interaction may be difficult. Placed in an organization, then, the salesperson must attempt to integrate the organization's role expectations with his role expectation. To determine if differences in expectations exist, the sales role must be examined from multiple perspectives.

In this article we propose a theoretical model of the dynamics underlying the experiences of women and people of color in demographically diverse decision-making groups. Based upon the framework provided by the model, we then describe the different roles women and people of color may experience in these groups, and we examine the dynamics by which their roles may change over time. Finally, we discuss implications for future research and management practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research in organizational behavior focuses on expressed and felt emotions as indicators of employee health and satisfaction In contrast, less conceptual and empirical work addresses the display of feelings as part of the job. This paper proposes a conceptual framework to guide theory development and research about the causes, qualities, arid consequences of emotions that are expressed to fulfill role expectations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following a review of literature on the leader-member exchange model of leadership, the model's methodological and theoretical problems are discussed. First, it is argued that leader-member exchange is a multidimensional construct and should be measured accordingly. Second, it is noted that the leader-member exchange developmental process has not been fully explicated. In addressing these problems, a three dimensional conceptualization of the leader-member exchange construct is proposed and a model of the Leader-member exchange developmental process is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four theories of human nature characterize the deeply embedded belief structures of organizational life. Depending on which theory is dominant, organizational members may take a "democratic," "modern," "totalitarian," or "hermeneutic" perspective of human nature. These theories influence organizational structuring and guide managerial behavior. By using models of human nature, organizational researchers can add to explanatory theory in the sociology of organizations. In addition, research issues regarding organizational control and decision making can be seen in a new light. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that current, global conceptions of organizational commitment may be deficient in several respects. A review of macro approaches to the nature of organization, as well as research on reference groups and role theory, indicates that a multiple commitments approach may be more precise and meaningful. It is suggested here that employees experience several different commitments to the goals and values of multiple groups. Some implications of this perspective are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A theoretical process model of career decision making is presented. The model draws on research in career theory as well as other areas of decision making. The complex interaction of roles, role expectations, search, and evaluation procedures with the environment is reviewed and integrated in the model. The model and its propositions provide a theoretical framework by which future research may be guided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

If the concept of organizational commitment is to have any analytical utility, it must be differentiated from the concept of expectancy. Viewing commitment and expectancy as two independent behavioral forces makes it possible to explain instances of commitment not explicable according to exchange or expectancy theories, such as remaining with an organization despite reward valences being reduced, inequity developing, and expectations not being met. Commitment defined as a force that maintains behavioral direction when expectancy/equity conditions are not met has at least four sources: investments, reciprocity, lack of alternatives, and identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the considerable volume of research on role-stress antecedents and consequences, the construct of person/role conflict has rarely been studied separately from other forms of role conflict (intersender, intrasender, role overload). An extension of Holland's person/environment congruence-model (from vocational psychology) to research on person/role conflict can help clarify this construct. I propose three types of research to develop better understanding of this type of employee stress: development of a scale to measure perceptions of person/role conflict separately from other types of role conflict; application of the Holland model as a conceptual base as well as an objective measure of one aspect of person/role conflict--namely, person/role incongruence; and empirical tests of the propositions suggested by the Holland model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the effectiveness of expatriate managers and their organizations. Factors contributing to the adjustment process are corporate selection strategy, personality variables, life satisfaction, and organizational structure. A work adjustment theory is adopted from the research of L. H. Lofquist and R. V. Dawis and suggests that expatriate managers' work is affected by job satisfaction and the satisfactoriness of their job performance. The inference is based on two assumptions about maintaining correspondence with diverse environments while working in a foreign subsidiary.

A model of role conflict coping behavior is presented based upon three levels in the role process. Type I coping, structural role redefinition, involves altering external, structurally imposed expectations relative to a person's position. Type II coping is personal role redefinition, changing one's expectations and perception of one's own behavior in a given position. Type III coping, reactive role behavior, entails attempting to find ways to meet all role expectations, assuming that demands are unchangeable and must be met. Through a pilot sample and a subsequent survey of college educated women, sixteen specific behavioral strategies are identified and classified under these three general types. The relationship between coping behavior and satisfaction is explored both in bivariate and moderator analyses. The results indicate that the simple act of coping (as opposed to noncoping) may he more strongly related to satisfaction in women than the particular type of coping strategy employed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reports tests of two hypotheses: (1) subordinates' satisfaction of role expectations will be positively related to leader consideration; and (2) consideration will have a significant moderating effect on the relationship between structure and satisfaction of role expectations. Under low consideration, satisfaction will be negatively related to initiating structure. With high consideration, satisfaction will not be related to initiating structure. The job description, job expectation, and leader behavior description questionnaires, developed at Ohio State University, were utilized. The investigation confirmed the first hypothesis, although the magnitudes of the correlations varied considerably among companies and among different measures of satisfaction. The findings failed to confirm the second hypothesis, and in fact suggested its opposite in one company. These findings are related to previous research and theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of the relationship between consultation and decision processes in an industrial research laboratory showed the efficacy of multidirectional consultation coupled with a pattern of shared, decentralized decision making. The loose, decentralized pattern was closely associated with more science-oriented activity, while the hierarchical pattern with more practical or organizationally relevant activities. The relationships obtained between this loose or hierarchical pattern and performance were mediated by coordination, adequacy of work expectations, and level of member involvement. The results also suggested that when decision centers are consistent with consultation centers, implying a congruence between authority and expertise, the overall structure of the laboratory is less important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new pattern of authority is emerging out of the contemporary erosion in the traditional authority bases of society. The new pattern emphasizes service, competence, the person, and role position. Criteria for evaluating the appropriateness of this new authority pattern are relevance to conditions, values, and continuity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study of 142 managerial dyads in four industrial settings, the accuracy of the subordinate's perceptions of what his superior expects of him and the extent to which the subordinate complies to those expectations were significantly related to: (1) job satisfaction expressed by the subordinate and (2) his performance evaluated by his superior. However, the relationships which involved compliance were of significantly greater magnitude than those involving role accuracy. Both role accuracy and compliance were found to be "necessary" but not "sufficient" conditions for high evaluation of performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on nine group leaders of matched engineering design groups. A significant negative correlation was found between the group leaders' technical competence and their managerial role adoption. A strong positive correlation between managerial role adoption and group productivity was obtained. It is suggested that engineers with high technical competence tend to reject the role of manager. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review of theories on the structure of organizations argues that they repeatedly reduce to a single aspect of role expectations; namely, the degree of specificity (or precision) of role prescription, and its obverse, the range of legitimate discretion. Three points emerge. First, a linear relationship between degree of role prescription and other behavior variables is almost universally taken for granted. Second, and most important, relatively little work is being done to devise measures of role prescription. Third, unless organizational scientists are more aware of their preoccupation with this single concept, the development of new ideas may be inhibited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]