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Bacteria are indispensable for the study of fundamental molecular biology processes due to their relatively simple gene and genome architecture. The ability to engineer bacterial chromosomes is quintessential for understanding gene functions. Here we demonstrate the engineering of the small-ribosomal subunit (16S) RNA of Mycoplasma mycoides, by combining the CRISPR/Cas9 system and the yeast recombination machinery. We cloned the entire genome of M. mycoides in yeast and used constitutively expressed Cas9 together with in vitro transcribed guide-RNAs to introduce engineered 16S rRNA genes. By testing the function of the engineered 16S rRNA genes through genome transplantation, we observed surprising resilience of this gene to addition of genetic elements or helix substitutions with phylogenetically-distant bacteria. While this system could be further used to study the function of the 16S rRNA, one could envision the “simple” M. mycoides genome being used in this setting to study other genetic structures and functions to answer fundamental questions of life.

Marine cyanobacteria of the genus Prochlorococcus represent numerically dominant photoautotrophs residing throughout the euphotic zones in the open oceans and are major contributors to the global carbon cycle. Prochlorococcus has remained a genetically intractable bacterium due to slow growth rates and low transformation efficiencies using standard techniques. Our recent successes in cloning and genetically engineering the AT-rich, 1.1 Mb Mycoplasma mycoides genome in yeast encouraged us to explore similar methods with Prochlorococcus. Prochlorococcus MED4 has an AT-rich genome, with a GC content of 30.8%, similar to that of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (38%), and contains abundant yeast replication origin consensus sites (ACS) evenly distributed around its 1.66 Mb genome. Unlike Mycoplasma cells, which use the UGA codon for tryptophane, Prochlorococcus uses the standard genetic code. Despite this, we observed no toxic effects of several partial and 15 whole Prochlorococcus MED4 genome clones in S. cerevisiae. Sequencing of a Prochlorococcus genome purified from yeast identified 14 single base pair missense mutations, one frameshift, one single base substitution to a stop codon and one dinucleotide transversion compared to the donor genomic DNA. We thus provide evidence of transformation, replication and maintenance of this 1.66 Mb intact bacterial genome in S. cerevisiae.

HynSL fromAlteromonas macleodii‘deep ecotype’ (AltDE) is an oxygen-tolerant and thermostable [NiFe] hydrogenase. Its two structural genes (hynSL), encoding small and large hydrogenase subunits, are surrounded by eight genes (hynD,hupHandhypCABDFE) predicted to encode accessory proteins involved in maturation of the hydrogenase. A 13 kb fragment containing the ten structural and accessory genes along with three additional adjacent genes (orf2,cytandorf1) was cloned into an IPTG-inducible expression vector and transferred into anEscherichia colimutant strain lacking its native hydrogenases. Upon induction, HynSL from AltDE was expressed inE. coliand was active, as determined by anin vitrohydrogen evolution assay. Subsequent genetic analysis revealed thatorf2,cyt,orf1andhupHare not essential for assembling an active hydrogenase. However,hupHandorf2can enhance the activity of the heterologously expressed hydrogenase. We used this genetic system to compare maturation mechanisms between AltDE HynSL and itsThiocapsa roseopersicinahomologue. When the structural genes for theT. roseopersicinahydrogenase,hynSL, were expressed along with knownT. roseopersicinaaccessory genes (hynD, hupK, hypC1C2andhypDEF), no active hydrogenase was produced. Further, co-expression of AltDE accessory geneshypAandhypBwith the entire set of theT. roseopersicinagenes did not produce an active hydrogenase. However, co-expression of all AltDE accessory genes with theT. roseopersicinastructural genes generated an activeT. roseopersicinahydrogenase. This result demonstrates that the accessory genes from AltDE can complement their counterparts fromT. roseopersicinaand that the two hydrogenases share similar maturation mechanisms.

Let There Be Life The DNA sequence information from thousands of genomes is stored digitally as ones and zeros in computer memory. Now, Gibson et al. (p. 52 , published online 20 May; see the cover; see the Policy Forum by Cho and Relman ) have brought together technologies from the past 15 years to start from digital information on the genome of Mycoplasma mycoides to chemically synthesize the genomic DNA as segments that could then be assembled in yeast and transplanted into the cytoplasm of another organism. A number of methods were also incorporated to facilitate testing and error correction of the synthetic genome segments. The transplanted genome became established in the recipient cell, replacing the recipient genome, which was lost from the cell. The reconstituted cells were able to replicate and form colonies, providing a proof-of-principle for future developments in synthetic biology.

Most microbes have not been cultured, and many of those that are cultivatable are difficult, dangerous or expensive to propagate or are genetically intractable. Routine cloning of large genome fractions or whole genomes from these organisms would significantly enhance their discovery and genetic and functional characterization. Here we report the cloning of whole bacterial genomes in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as single-DNA molecules. We cloned the genomes of Mycoplasma genitalium (0.6 Mb), M. pneumoniae (0.8 Mb) and M. mycoides subspecies capri (1.1 Mb) as yeast circular centromeric plasmids. These genomes appear to be stably maintained in a host that has efficient, well-established methods for DNA manipulation.

Eukaryotic DNA replication requires the assembly of multiprotein pre-replication complexes (pre-RCs) at chromosomal origins of DNA replication. Here we describe the interactions of highly purified Schizosaccharomyces pombe pre-RC components, SpORC, SpCdc18, and SpCdt1, with each other and with ars1 origin DNA. We show that SpORC binds DNA in at least two steps. The first step likely involves electrostatic interactions between the AT-hook motifs of SpOrc4 and AT tracts in ars1 DNA and results in the formation of a salt-sensitive complex. In the second step, the salt-sensitive complex is slowly converted to a salt-stable complex that involves additional interactions between SpORC and DNA. Binding of SpORC to ars1 DNA is facilitated by negative supercoiling and is accompanied by changes in DNA topology, suggesting that SpORC-DNA complexes contain underwound or negatively writhed DNA. Purified human origin recognition complex (ORC) induces similar topological changes in origin DNA, indicating that this property of ORC is conserved in eukaryotic evolution and plays an important role in ORC function. We also show that SpCdc18 and SpCdt1 form a binary complex that has greater affinity for DNA than either protein alone. In addition, both proteins contribute significantly to the stability of the initial SpORC-DNA complex and enhance the SpORC-dependent topology changes in origin DNA. Thus, the formation of stable protein-DNA complexes at S. pombe origins of replication involves binary interactions among all three proteins, as well as interactions of both SpORC and SpCdt1-SpCdc18 with origin DNA. These findings demonstrate that SpORC is not the sole determinant of origin recognition.

Background We have previously established technologies enabling us to engineer the Mycoplasma mycoides genome while cloned in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, followed by genome transplantation into Mycoplasma capricolum recipient cells to produce M. mycoides with an altered genome. To expand the toolbox for genomic modifications, we designed a strategy based on the Cre/loxP-based Recombinase-Mediated Cassette Exchange (RMCE) system for functional genomics analyses. Results In this paper, we demonstrated replacement of an approximately 100 kb DNA segment of the M. mycoides genome with a synthetic DNA counterpart in two orientations. The function of the altered genomes was then validated by genome transplantation and phenotypic characterization of the transplanted cells. Conclusion This method offers an easy and efficient way to manipulate the M. mycoides genome and will be a valuable tool for functional genomic studies, such as genome organization and minimization. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12575-015-0016-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Complexities of natural biological systems make it difficult to understand and define precisely the roles of individual genes and their integrated functions. The use of model organisms with a relatively small number of genes enables the isolation of core biological processes from their complex regulatory networks for extensive characterization. However, even the simplest natural microbes contain many genes of unknown function, as well as genes that can be singly or simultaneously deleted without any noticeable effect on growth rate in a laboratory setting (Hutchison et al. 1999; Glass et al. 2006; Posfai et al. 2006). Ill-defined genes and those mediating functional redundancies both compound the challenge of understanding even the simplest life forms. Toward generating a minimal cell where every gene is essential for the axenic viability of the organism, we are pursuing strategies to reduce the 1-Mb genome of Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0 (Gibson et al. 2010). Because we can (1) introduce this genome into yeast and maintain it as a plasmid (Benders et al. 2010; Karas et al. 2013a); and (2) “transplant” the genome from yeast into mycoplasma recipient cells (Lartigue et al. 2009), genetic tools in yeast are available for reducing this bacterial genome. Several systems offer advanced tools for bacterial genome engineering. Here we further exploit distinctive features of yeast for this purpose. Methods for serially replacing genomic regions with selectable markers are limited by the number of available markers. One effective approach is to reuse the same marker after precise and scarless marker excision (Storici et al. 2001). We have previously used a self-excising marker (Noskov et al. 2010) six times in yeast to generate a JCVI-syn1.0 genome lacking all six restriction systems (JCVI-syn1.0 ∆1-6) (Karas et al. 2013a). Despite the advantages of scarless engineering, sequential procedures are time-consuming. When applied to poorly characterized genes with the potential to interact with other genes, some paths for multigene knockout may lead to dead ends that result from synergistic mutant phenotypes. When a dead end is reached, sequentially returning to a previous genome in an effort to find a detour to a viable higher-order multimutant may be prohibitively time-consuming. An alternative approach to multigene engineering, available in yeast, is to prepare a set of single mutants and combine the deletions into a single strain via cycles of mating and meiotic recombination (Fig. 1A; Pinel et al. 2011; Suzuki et al. 2011, 2012). With a green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene inserted in each deletion locus, the enrichment of higher-order yeast deletion strains in the meiotic population can be accomplished using flow cytometry. Here we apply this method to the JCVI-syn1.0 ∆1-6 exogenous, bacterial genome harbored in yeast to nonsequentially assemble deletions for genes predicted to be individually deletable based on biological knowledge or transposon-mediated disruption data. The functional identification of simultaneously deletable regions is expected to accelerate the effort to construct a minimal genome. Figure 1. Progressive clustering of deleted genomic segments. (A) Scheme of the method. Light blue oval represents a bacterial cell. Black ring or horizontal line denotes a bacterial genome, with the orange box indicating the yeast vector used as a site for linearization ...

Viruses are intracellular parasites that must use the host machinery to multiply. Identification of the host factors that perform essential functions in viral replication is thus of crucial importance to the understanding of virus–host interactions. Here we describe Ded1p, a highly conserved DExD/H-box translation factor, as a possible host factor recruited by the yeast L-A double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) virus. We found that Ded1p interacts specifically and strongly with Gag, the L-A virus coat protein. Further analysis revealed that Ded1p interacts with the L-A virus in an RNA-independent manner and, as a result, L-A particles can be affinity purified via this interaction. The affinity-purified L-A particles are functional, as they are capable of synthesizing RNA in vitro. Critically, using purified L-A particles, we demonstrated that Ded1p specifically promotes L-A dsRNA replication by accelerating the rate of negative-strand RNA synthesis in vitro. In light of these data, we suggest that Ded1p may be a part of the long sought after activity shown to promote yeast viral dsRNA replication. This and the fact that Ded1p is also required for translating brome mosaic virus RNA2 in yeast thus raise the intriguing possibility that Ded1p is one of the key host factors favored by several evolutionarily related RNA viruses, including the human hepatitis C virus.

With the development of several new technologies using synthetic biology, it is possible to engineer genetically intractable organisms including Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies capri (Mmc), by cloning the intact bacterial genome in yeast, using the host yeast's genetic tools to modify the cloned genome, and subsequently transplanting the modified genome into a recipient cell to obtain mutant cells encoded by the modified genome. The recently described tandem repeat coupled with endonuclease cleavage (TREC) method has been successfully used to generate seamless deletions and point mutations in the mycoplasma genome using the yeast DNA repair machinery. But, attempts to knock-in genes in some cases have encountered a high background of transformation due to maintenance of unwanted circularization of the transforming DNA, which contains possible autonomously replicating sequence (ARS) activity. To overcome this issue, we incorporated a split marker system into the TREC method, enabling seamless gene knock-in with high efficiency. The modified method is called TREC-assisted gene knock-in (TREC-IN). Since a gene to be knocked-in is delivered by a truncated non-functional marker, the background caused by an incomplete integration is essentially eliminated., In this paper, we demonstrate applications of the TREC-IN method in gene complementation and genome minimization studies in Mmc. In the first example, the Mmc dnaA gene was seamlessly replaced by an orthologous gene, which shares a high degree of identity at the nucleotide level with the original Mmc gene, with high efficiency and low background. In the minimization example, we replaced an essential gene back into the genome that was present in the middle of a cluster of non-essential genes, while deleting the non-essential gene cluster, again with low backgrounds of transformation and high efficiency., Although we have demonstrated the feasibility of TREC-IN in gene complementation and genome minimization studies in Mmc, the applicability of TREC-IN ranges widely. This method proves to be a valuable genetic tool that can be extended for genomic engineering in other genetically intractable organisms, where it may be implemented in elucidating specific metabolic pathways and in rationale vaccine design.

The DED1 gene, which encodes a putative RNA helicase, has been implicated in nuclear pre-messenger RNA splicing in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae . It is shown here by genetic and biochemical analysis that translation, rather than splicing, is severely impaired in two newly isolated ded1 conditional mutants. Preliminary evidence suggests that the protein Ded1p may be required for the initiation step of translation, as is the distinct DEAD-box protein, eukaryotic initiation factor 4A (eIF4A). The DED1 gene could be functionally replaced by a mouse homolog, PL10 , which suggests that the function of Ded1p in translation is evolutionarily conserved.

Synthetic peptides to selected sequences in human DNA polymerase delta (pol delta) were used to identify the region involved in the interaction of pol delta to proliferating cell nuclear antigen. Peptides corresponding to sequences in five regions in the amino terminus of human pol delta and three in the carboxyl terminus, which are conserved with the yeast homologs of pol delta, were tested. These studies showed that the peptide corresponding to the N2 region (residues 129-149) selectively and specifically inhibited the PCNA stimulation of pol delta. This inhibition was relieved by titration with excess PCNA. The identification of the N-2 region as being involved in PCNA binding was supported by studies that demonstrated that the N2 peptide could bind PCNA. Deletion mutants of pol delta expressed in Sf9 cells provided evidence that the binding region for PCNA was located in the first 182 residues of the amino terminus. These studies provide reasonable evidence that residues within the region 129-149 of pol delta are involved in the binding site for PCNA.

Character Transplant When engineering bacteria, it can be advantageous to propagate the genomes in yeast. However, to be truly useful, one must be able to transplant the bacterial chromosome from yeast back into a recipient bacterial cell. But because yeast does not contain restriction-modification systems, such transplantation poses problems not encountered in transplantation from one bacterial cell to another. Bacterial genomes isolated after growth in yeast are likely to be susceptible to the restriction-modification system(s) of the recipient cell, as well as their own. Lartigue et al. (p. 1693 , published online 20 August) describe multiple steps, including in vitro DNA methylation, developed to overcome such barriers. A Mycoplasma mycoides large-colony genome was propagated in yeast as a centromeric plasmid, engineered via yeast genetic systems, and, after specific methylation, transplanted into M. capricolum to produce a bacterial cell with the genotype and phenotype of the altered M. mycoides large-colony genome.

The common understanding of the function of RecD, as derived predominantly from studies in Escherichia coli, is that RecD is one of three enzymes in the RecBCD double-stranded break repair DNA recombination complex. However, comparative genomics has revealed that many organisms possess a recD gene even though the other members of the complex, recB and recC, are not present. Further, bioinformatic analyses have shown that there is substantial sequence dissimilarity between recD genes associated with recB and recC (recD1), and those that are not associated with recBC (recD2). Deinococcus radiodurans, known for its extraordinary DNA repair capability, is one such organism that does not possess either recB or recC, and yet does possess a recD gene. The recD of D. radiodurans was deleted and this mutant was shown to have a capacity to repair double-stranded DNA breaks equivalent to wild-type. The phylogenetic history of recD was studied using a dataset of 120 recD genes from 91 fully sequenced species. The analysis focused upon the role of gene duplication and functional genomic context in the evolution of recD2, which appears to have undergone numerous independent events resulting in duplicate recD2 genes. The role of RecD as part of the RecBCD complex appears to have a divergence from an earlier ancestral RecD function still preserved in many species including D. radiodurans.

Origins of DNA replication in Schizosaccharomyces pombe lack a specific consensus sequence analogous to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae autonomously replicating sequence ( ARS ) consensus, raising the question of how they are recognized by the replication machinery. Because all well characterized S. pombe origins are located in intergenic regions, we analyzed the sequence properties and biological activity of such regions. The AT content of intergenes is very high (≈70%), and runs of A's or T's occur with a significantly greater frequency than expected. Additionally, the two DNA strands in intergenes display compositional asymmetry that strongly correlates with the direction of transcription of flanking genes. Importantly, the sequence properties of known S. pombe origins of DNA replication are similar to those of intergenes in general. In functional studies, we assayed the in vivo origin activity of 26 intergenes in a 68-kb region of S. pombe chromosome 2. We also assayed the origin activity of sets of randomly chosen intergenes with the same length or AT content. Our data demonstrate that at least half of intergenes have potential origin activity and that the relative ability of an intergene to function as an origin is governed primarily by AT content and length. We propose a stochastic model for initiation of DNA replication in the fission yeast. In this model, the number of AT tracts in a given sequence is the major determinant of its probability of binding SpORC and serving as a replication origin. A similar model may explain some features of origins of DNA replication in metazoans.

The origin recognition complex (ORC) plays a central role in the initiation of DNA replication in eukaryotic cells. It interacts with origins of DNA replication in chromosomal DNA and recruits additional replication proteins to form functional initiation complexes. These processes have not been well characterized at the biochemical level except in the case of Saccharomyces cerevisiae ORC. We report here the expression, purification, and initial characterization of Schizosaccharomyces pombe ORC (SpORC) containing six recombinant subunits. Purified SpORC binds efficiently to the ars1 origin of DNA replication via the essential Nterminal domain of the SpOrc4 subunit which contains nine AT-hook motifs. Competition binding experiments demonstrated that SpORC binds preferentially to DNA molecules rich in AT-tracts, but does not otherwise exhibit a high degree of sequence specificity. The complex is capable of binding to multiple sites within the ars1 origin of DNA replication with similar affinities, indicating that the sequence requirements for origin recognition in S. pombe are significantly less stringent than in S. cerevisiae. We have also demonstrated that SpORC interacts directly with Cdc18p, an essential fission yeast initiation protein, and recruits it to the ars1 origin in vitro. Recruitment of Cdc18p to chromosomal origins is a likely early step in the initiation of DNA replication in vivo. These data indicate that the purified recombinant SpORC retains at least two of its primary biological functions and that it will be useful for the eventual reconstitution of the initiation reaction with purified proteins.

The origin recognition complex (ORC) was originally identified in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a protein that specifically binds to origins of DNA replication. Although ORC appears to play an essential role in the initiation of DNA replication in the cells of all eukaryotes, its interactions with DNA have not been defined in species other than budding yeast. We have characterized a Schizosaccharomyces pombe homologue of the ORC subunit, Orc4p. The homologue (Orp4p) consists of two distinct functional domains. The C-terminal domain shows strong sequence similarity to human, frog, and yeast Orc4 proteins, including conserved ATP-binding motifs. The N-terminal domain contains nine copies of the AT-hook motif found in a number of DNA-binding proteins, including the members of the HMG-I(Y) family of chromatin proteins. AT-hook motifs are known from biochemical and structural studies to mediate binding to the minor groove of AT-tracts in DNA. Orp4p is essential for viability of Sc. pombe and is expressed throughout the cell cycle. The Orp4 protein (and its isolated N-terminal domain) binds to the Sc. pombe replication origin, ars1 . The DNA binding properties of Orp4p provide a plausible explanation for the characteristic features of Sc. pombe origins of replication, which differ significantly from those of Sa. cerevisiae .

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Background Synthetic genomic approaches offer unique opportunities to use powerful yeast and Escherichia coli genetic systems to assemble and modify chromosome-sized molecules before returning the modified DNA to the target host. For example, the entire 1 Mb Mycoplasma mycoides chromosome can be stably maintained and manipulated in yeast before being transplanted back into recipient cells. We have previously demonstrated that cloning in yeast of large (> ~ 150 kb), high G + C (55%) prokaryotic DNA fragments was improved by addition of yeast replication origins every ~100 kb. Conversely, low G + C DNA is stable (up to at least 1.8 Mb) without adding supplemental yeast origins. It has not been previously tested whether addition of yeast replication origins similarly improves the yeast-based cloning of large (>150 kb) eukaryotic DNA with moderate G + C content. The model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum has an average G + C content of 48% and a 27.4 Mb genome sequence that has been assembled into chromosome-sized scaffolds making it an ideal test case for assembly and maintenance of eukaryotic chromosomes in yeast. Results We present a modified chromosome assembly technique in which eukaryotic chromosomes as large as ~500 kb can be assembled from cloned ~100 kb fragments. We used this technique to clone fragments spanning P. tricornutum chromosomes 25 and 26 and to assemble these fragments into single, chromosome-sized molecules. We found that addition of yeast replication origins improved the cloning, assembly, and maintenance of the large chromosomes in yeast. Furthermore, purification of the fragments to be assembled by electroelution greatly increased assembly efficiency. Conclusions Entire eukaryotic chromosomes can be successfully cloned, maintained, and manipulated in yeast. These results highlight the improvement in assembly and maintenance afforded by including yeast replication origins in eukaryotic DNA with moderate G + C content (48%). They also highlight the increased efficiency of assembly that can be achieved by purifying fragments before assembly.