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Recent controversies over the characteristics of 'professionalism' and its enforcement by medical educators underscore the racialized and gendered norms implicit in this practice. In this essay, we describe the ways nebulous definitions of 'professionalism' imbue White, cisgender, straight, and able-bodied standards to police the boundaries of belonging in medicine. As such, marginalized trainees remain unfinished sculptures, forced to chisel away dimensions of experience and expression to conform to 'professional' standards. We seek to resculpt professionalism in a way that centers patients and trainees currently at the margins. This will strengthen the increasingly diverse workforce and ensure that they can effectively address the needs of patients often excluded from quality care. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.2892, 'A patient of mine whom I had not yet met,' the white coat ceremony speaker began, 'once walked up to me and said, 'Hey Doc!' When I asked him how [...]

Despite changes to Canadian immigration policy to address declining labour market outcomes, many highly educated immigrants still face challenges when searching for career-related employment. Semi-structured interviews with 38 skilled newcomers in Edmonton, Alberta and Winnipeg, Manitoba illustrate significant obstacles, including a lack of credential recognition, racial discrimination, and a requirement for Canadian experience. Drawing from inter-sectional feminism and critical race theory, this study assesses the perspectives of newcomers during their employment search and explores the common desire for return-migration. Findings illustrate how the pre-arrival expectations of immigrants are incongruent with the realities of persistent labour market barriers. Newcomers consider if they should stay in Canada due to the lack of meaningful economic opportunities. Keywords: secondary migration, return migration, labour market integration, critical race theory, intersectionality, transnational feminism Malgre les changements a la politique d'immigration canadienne pour remedier la baisse des resultats sur le marche du travail, de nombreux immigrants tres instruits sont toujours confrontes a des difficultes lorsqu'ils cherchent un emploi lie a leur carriere. Des entretiens semi-structures avec 38 nouveaux arrivants qualifies a Edmonton, Alberta, et a Winnipeg, Manitoba, illustrent des obstacles importants, notamment le manque de reconnaissance des titres de competences, la discrimination raciale et l'exigence d'une experience canadienne. S'inspirant du feminisme intersectionnel et de la theorie critique de la race, cette etude evalue les perspectives des nouveaux arrivants pendant leur recherche d'emploi et explore le desir commun de retourner sur le marche du travail. Les resultats illustrent comment les attentes des immigrants avant leur arrivee sont incompatibles avec les realites des obstacles persistants du marche du travail. Les nouveaux arrivants se demandent s'ils doivent rester au Canada en raison du manque d'opportunites economiques significatives. Mots-cles: migration secondaire, migration de retour, integration sur le marche du travail, theorie critique de la race, intersectionnalite, feminisme transnational., INTRODUCTION In recent decades, Canadian immigration policy has increasingly prioritized 'economic self-sufficiency' over cultural diversity and multiculturalism (Abu-Laban 1998; Chuong 2015). Current immigrant selection policy strives for optimal labour market [...]

Can raising awareness of racial bias subsequently reduce that bias? We address this question by exploiting the widespread media attention highlighting racial bias among professional basketball referees that occurred in May 2007 following the release of an academic study. Using new data, we confirm that racial bias persisted in the years after the study's original sample but prior to the media coverage. Subsequent to the media coverage, though, the bias disappeared. Several potential mechanisms may have produced this result, including voluntary behavior changes by individual referees, adjustments by players to new information, and changes in referee behavior due to institutional pressure. These results suggest a new kind of Hawthorne effect in which greater scrutiny of even subtle forms of bias can bring about meaningful change. Keywords: behavioral economics * racial discrimination, 1. Introduction A recent stream of research has documented the existence of in-group racial biases in the employment, criminal, judicial, and educational settings (Donohue and Levitt 2001, Bertrand et al. [...]

Introduction 458 I. The Failures of Antidiscrimination Law to Address Intersectional Bias 464 A. Courts: The Failure of the Siloed Claims 465 B. Advocacy: The Failure of the Stock Story [...], Agencies, advocates, and courts regularly and repeatedly fail plaintiffs who have experienced intersectional discrimination based on more than one personal identity trait. Nearly thirty years after intersectionality theory was first introduced to legal scholarship, however, its insights have yet to be effectively integrated into antidiscrimination advocacy and doctrine. This Article borrows the contributions of intersectionality theory and explores its critiques to develop a novel "cluster framework" for bridging the divide between the theory and civil rights jurisprudence. Using race-sex discrimination as a lens, the proposed framework relocates intersectional discrimination wholly within a traditionally protected class, illuminating similarities and differences in discrimination across groups and subgroups. This Article concludes with three concrete proposals to implement the cluster framework such that the antidiscrimination doctrine will better recognize and remedy intersectional discrimination.

OBJECTIVES: To determine among rural-dwelling on-reserve Saskatchewan First Nations people whether racial discrimination is associated with depression, and in turn, if this relationship is moderated by gender. METHODS: As a component of a community-based participatory research project, a cross-sectional, interviewer-administered survey of 874 adults living on 2 Cree First Nation reserves in rural north-central Saskatchewan was conducted during May-August in 2012 and 2013. Self-reported, health-provider diagnosis of depression was the dependent variable and experiences of interpersonal racial discrimination was the primary exposure. Chi-square and multiple logistic regression were the main analytic techniques. Generalized estimating equations were applied to account for clustering within households. RESULTS: Overall, 64% of participants reported being treated unfairly in 1 or more situations because of their ethnicity; 38% indicated discrimination occurring in 3 or more situations. Nineteen percent reported a diagnosis of depression. Adjusted analyses indicated that compared to those with no experience of racial discrimination, those reporting 1-2 and 3 or more situations were 1.77 times (95% CI: 1.06-2.95) and 1.91 times (95% CI: 1.19- 3.04) more likely to have diagnosed depression respectively. The relationship between racial discrimination and depression was not modified by gender, although women were 1.85 times (95% CI: 1.24-2.76) more likely to report depression than men. CONCLUSION: Interpersonal racial discrimination was associated with depression among First Nations women and men in rural Saskatchewan. Research directed at identifying the most efficacious interventions, programs and policies to combat racism is required to advance the goal of health equity. KEY WORDS: Racial discrimination; First Nations; depression OBJECTIFS : Determiner, chez les membres des Premieres Nations de la Saskatchewan vivant dans des reserves en zone rurale, si la discrimination raciale est associee a la depression et si, en retour, cette relation est modulee par le sexe. METHODE : Dans le cadre d'un projet de recherche participative communautaire, nous avons mene une enquete transversale administree par un intervieweur aupres de 874 adultes vivant dans deux reserves de la Premiere Nation crie dans le centre-nord rural de la Saskatchewan entre mai et aout en 2012 et en 2013. La variable dependante etait un diagnostic de depression autodeclare pose par un dispensateur de soins de sante, et l'exposition directe etait l'experience de la discrimination raciale interpersonnelle. Nos principales techniques etaient l'analyse du khi-carre et l'analyse de regression logistique multiple. Nous avons applique des equations d'estimation generalisees pour tenir compte des regroupements au sein des menages. RESULTATS : Dans l'ensemble, 64% des participants ont declare avoir ete traites injustement dans une situation ou plus en raison de leur ethnicite; 38% ont fait etat de discrimination dans trois situations ou plus. Dix-neuf p. cent ont dit avoir un diagnostic de depression. Les analyses ajustees ont indique que comparativement aux repondants n'ayant aucune experience de discrimination raciale, ceux qui ont declare une ou deux situations et trois situations ou plus etaient 1,77 fois (IC de 95% : 1,06-2,95) et 1,91 fois (IC de 95% : 1,19-3,04) plus susceptibles d'avoir un diagnostic de depression, respectivement. La relation entre la discrimination raciale et la depression n'etait pas modulee par le sexe, mais les femmes etaient 1,85 fois (IC de 95% : 1,24-2,76) plus susceptibles de declarer un diagnostic de depression que les hommes. CONCLUSION : La discrimination raciale interpersonnelle etait associee a la depression chez les femmes et les hommes des Premieres nations vivant en zone rurale en Saskatchewan. Pour atteindre l'objectif de l'equite en sante, il faut faire de la recherche pour determiner quels sont les interventions, les programmes et les politiques les plus efficaces pour combattre le racisme. MOTS CLES : discrimination raciale; Premieres Nations; depression, Racial discrimination is increasingly recognized within the population health literature as an important determinant of health inequities. Different levels of racial discrimination exist, ranging from structural to interpersonal, the latter [...]

Religious and ethnic minorities often face partisan treatment with regard to provision of public goods. This may be due to discriminatory practices or historical antecedents, like caste divides in India. We measure access to public goods in eleven districts of West Bengal in India where rural concentration of religious minorities, namely Muslims is higher than the state and country-level averages. We look at the contemporary socio-economic conditions of religious minorities in the state and the outcome regarding access to public good. The evidence as presented in this paper is based on cross-section data collected between Censuses of India. This is unavailable in the extant literature. Our unit of analysis for the econometric exercise is the village. We calculated average values of the relevant variables for each village from household responses, and the aggregate village level information from the village survey data. To this end, we adopted a stratified multistage sampling design in which households are the targeted sampling units chosen from rural areas only. The first stage units are the 2001 Census villages constituting the primary sampling units. The development blocks as comprising of Census villages have been classified into three strata on the basis of the percentage of Muslim population. Subsequently, using Generalized Linear Models we find evidence of strong horizontal inequality against Muslims in terms of access to public goods. We estimated the access to targeted and non-targeted public goods such as drinking water, distance to hospitals, distance and quality of educational facilities, transport, condition of roads, etc, based on the level of concentration of Muslim population. We use percentage of Muslim population at the village level and the highest concentration dummy as key explanatory variables. Provision of public goods seems to have a negative relation with the rise in concentration of minority population. Further, to decompose the outcome variables in terms of explained (viz. education and occupation) and unexplained (viz. discrimination) variations, we use Blinder-Oaxaca technique. In particular, the minority population in concentrated districts face poorer access to infrastructure, health and transport facilities. As policy, the district level plans need to address deficits in identifiable pockets of underdevelopment with respect to some of the variables discussed here. Moreover, the persistence of information gaps and poor implementation of policies in several parts, including the region under study, despite elaborate decentralization of governance in the country needs to be addressed from institutional perspectives in future analyses. JEL Classifications: H41, H51, J15, O18, I31 Keywords: Religious minorities, public good, land holdings, Generalized Linear Models, India Corresponding Author's Email Address:saibal@cssscal.org, INTRODUCTION Religious minorities in India are defined on the basis of the National Commission of Minorities Act, 1992. This includes Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists and Zoroastrians (Parsis). (2) It is [...]

OBJECTIVES: 1) To examine associations between racial discrimination and drug problems among urban-based Aboriginal adults; and 2) to determine whether these associations are best explained by symptoms of psychological stress, distress or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHODS: Data were collected through in-person surveys with a community-based sample of Aboriginal adults (N = 372) living in a mid-sized city in western Canada in 2010. Associations were examined using bootstrapped linear regression models adjusted for confounders, with continuous prescription and illicit drug problem scores as outcomes. Mediation was examined using the cross-products of coefficients method. RESULTS: More than 80% of Aboriginal adults had experienced racial discrimination in the past year, with the majority reporting high levels in that period. Past-year discrimination was a risk factor for PTSD symptoms and prescription drug problems in models adjusted for confounders and other forms of psychological trauma. In mediation models, PTSD symptoms explained the association between discrimination and prescription drug problems; psychological stress and distress did not. PTSD symptoms also explained this association when the covariance between mediators was controlled. The results also indicate that participation in Aboriginal cultural traditions was associated with increased discrimination. CONCLUSIONS: Most efforts to address Aboriginal health inequities in Canada have focused on the role Aboriginal people play in these disparities. The current findings combine with others to call for an expanded focus. Non-Aboriginal Canadians may also play a role in the health inequities observed. The findings of this study suggest efforts to reduce discrimination experienced by Aboriginal adults in cities may reduce PTSD symptomology and prescription drug problems in these populations. Key words: Aboriginal; racial discrimination; prescription drugs; posttraumatic stress; Canada Can J Public Health 2015;106(6):e382-e387 doi: 10.17269/CJPH.106.4979 OBJECTIFS: 1) Examiner les associations entre la discrimination raciale et les problemes de toxicomanie chez les adultes autochtones en milieu urbain; et 2) determiner si ces associations s'expliquent mieux par les symptomes du stress psychologique, de la detresse ou de l'etat de stress post-traumatique (ESPT). METHODE: Les donnees ont ete recueillies au moyen de questionnaires administres en personne aupres d'un echantillon communautaire d'adultes autochtones (N = 371) vivant dans une ville de taille moyenne de l'Ouest canadien en 2010. Les associations ont ete examinees a l'aide de modeles de regression lineaire avec reechantillonnage (bootstrap) ajustes en fonction de facteurs confusionnels, les resultats etant les notes obtenues par rapport aux ordonnances continues de medicaments et aux abus de drogues illicites. Nous avons examine la mediation a l'aide des produits croises de la methode des coefficients. RESULTATS: Plus de 80 % des adultes autochtones avaient subi de la discrimination raciale au cours de l'annee anterieure, la majorite indiquant des niveaux eleves de discrimination durant cette periode. La discrimination au cours de l'annee anterieure etait un facteur de risque pour les symptomes d'ESPT et les abus de medicaments sur ordonnance dans les modeles ajustes en fonction des facteurs confusionnels et d'autres formes de traumatisme psychologique. Dans les modeles de mediation, les symptomes d'ESPT expliquaient l'association entre la discrimination et l'abus de medicaments sur ordonnance; le stress psychologique et la detresse ne l'expliquaient pas. Les symptomes d'ESPT expliquaient aussi cette association apres ajustement pour tenir compte de la covariance entre les mediateurs. Les resultats montrent egalement que la participation aux traditions culturelles autochtones etait associee a une discrimination accrue. CONCLUSION: La plupart des efforts pour aborder les iniquites en sante chez les Autochtones du Canada portent sur le role joue par les Autochtones dans ces disparites. Nos constatations, combinees a celles d'autres chercheurs, justifient un elargissement de cette perspective. Les Canadiens non autochtones pourraient aussi jouer un role dans les iniquites en sante observees. Les constatations de notre etude indiquent que des efforts pour reduire la discrimination vecue par les adultes autochtones dans les villes pourraient reduire les symptomes d'ESPT et les abus de medicaments sur ordonnance dans ces populations. MOTS CLES: Indiens d'Amerique nord; discrimination raciale; medicaments sur ordonnance; stress post-traumatique; Canada, Aboriginal peoples experience a disproportionate burden of drug problems with serious implications for health. (1,2) To date, we do not have a common understanding of the determinants underlying these disparities. [...]

After serving as a law clerk first for Skelly Wright and then--with the assistance of Judge Wright I am sure--for Justice Thurgood Marshall, I worked for four years as a [...]

INTRODUCTION Immigration from former colonies in North and sub-Saharan Africa has had a significant effect on France's demographic composition. That nation now has the largest Muslim population in Europe and [...]

Introduction and summary The large and persistent gap in economic status between blacks and whites in the United States has been a topic of considerable interest among social scientists and [...]

Current research indicates that racial discrimination is pervasive in the lives of African Americans. Although there are a variety of ways in which discrimination may contribute to health, one potentially important pathway is through its impact on substance use. Addressing the paucity of longitudinal research on this topic, the present study examined the influence of teacher discrimination on changes in substance use over time among African American adolescents and considered three dimensions of racial identity as moderators of this association (centrality, private regard, and public regard). Latent variable SEM analyses indicated that, on average, levels of discrimination were associated with increases in substance use across the high school years. However, public regard was found to moderate this association such that discrimination was less strongly associated with increases in substance use for individual who reported lower levels of public regard. The implications of these findings are discussed. Keywords Racial discrimination * Stress * Substance use * Identity * African American * Health disparities, Introduction Substantial disparities in health between African Americans and Whites exist in the United States today (Fuller-Rowell et al., 2011; Mays et al., 2007; Orsi et al., 2010). While there [...]

A large body of literature depicts that status-based discrimination is pervasive, but is silent on how economic incentive interacts with such discrimination. This study addresses this question by designing a field experiment in a reputable arranged marriage market that is prone to strong caste-status-based discrimination. We place newspaper advertisements of potential grooms by systematically varying their caste and income and focus on responses of higher-caste females to lower-caste males. The substantive finding is that despite the evidence of discrimination, discriminatory behavior of higher-status females decreases with an increase in the advertised monthly income of lower-status males. (JEL C93, J12, J15), I. INTRODUCTION The relationship between economic motive and observance of discriminatory social customs is hardly new to economists. This is implicit in the writings of Becker (1957, 1973, 1974) on [...]

To authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2010.00732.x Byline: Wendy D. Roth (1) Abstract: Objectives. A primary justification for collecting U.S. racial statistics is the need to monitor racial discrimination. This article aims to show how analyses of Hispanics-who may officially be of any race-tend to miss discrimination based on racial appearance by relying on data that instead capture racial self-identification, a different aspect of race that often does not correspond. Methods. The study analyzes 60 qualitative interviews with Dominican and Puerto Rican migrants in the New York metropolitan area. It employs multiple measures to represent theoretically distinct aspects of the lived experience of race. Results. Respondents interpret the Census race question in different ways corresponding to different aspects of race, which often do not match one another. Although respondents experience discrimination on the basis of phenotype, their racial self-identification is a poor proxy for measuring their racial appearance. Conclusions. Scholars need to develop a language of race that communicates the multiplicity of social processes involved. Social surveys must provide measures of these multiple components, including interviewer observations of racial appearance, to monitor discrimination on the basis of phenotype within Hispanic groups. Author Affiliation: (1)University of British Columbia

Racial disparities in postdisplacement outcomes are investigated while controlling for predisplacement experience and earnings of individual workers. Applying data from the Displaced Workers Survey, no racial difference is demonstrated in the reemployment wage. Significant disparity is shown in the prospects of reemployment among workers with equivalent experience and characteristics.

Objectives. We assessed the value of Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WlC) services as a public health intervention seeking to improve birth outcomes and reduce racial disparities. Methods. We compared the infant mortality rate (IMR) per 1000 live births and percentage of preterm births overall and by race for prenatal WIC versus non-WIC participants in Hamilton County, Ohio, from 2005 to 2008. Results. The IMR was lower for WIC participants than for non-WIC participants (8.0 vs 10.6; P = .04). For African Americans, the IMR of WIC participants was much lower than that of non-WIC participants (9.6 vs 21.0; P Conclusions. Prenatal WIC participation is associated with significant improvements in African American IMR. WIC participation reduces racial disparities in IMR between African Americans and Whites. (Am J Public Health. 2010;100:S204-S209. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2009.168922)

Many people have commented that with the election of Barack Obama as the 44th President of the United States, this is a wonderful time to be a historian or other [...]

Ezra Pound's obsessive concern with economics and the role of the Jews began in 1932. Yet there is no consensus about the immediate cause of this fateful turn. A look at the relation between Pound and Otto Kahn, however, indicates that Pound's unhappiness with Kahn must have been a contributing factor. Their relation was at its most intense in 1931 and 1932. During those years, Pound appealed to Kahn to come to the aid of such writers as Louis Zukofsky and George Oppen. Kahn politely deflected these appeals. Pound's failure to move Kahn convinced him that capitalism could not provide a living wage for the true artist, either in the 'free market,' or in the form of funds from a wealthy patron. Therefore, a radical reconstruction of economics was necessary. After 1932, Pound considered Kahn symptomatic of economic injustice and (eventually) racial degeneration. Keywords: Pound / Kahn / economics / anti-Semitism, One afternoon in Paris (April 29, 1931, to be precise), patrons of the restaurant at the Ritz Hotel might have been amused to notice an odd couple sharing a table: [...]

Using personnel data from a large U.S. retail firm, we examine whether the race or ethnicity of the hiring manager affects the racial composition of new hires. We exploit manager turnover to estimate models with store fixed effects and store-specific trends. First, we find that all non-black managers--that is, whites, Hispanics, and Asians--hire more whites and fewer blacks than do black managers. This is especially true in the South. Second, in locations with large Hispanic populations, Hispanic managers hire more Hispanics and fewer whites than do white managers. We also examine possible explanations for these differential hiring patterns.

This article examines post-Civil Rights Act trends in private sector managerial representation for white men, white women, black men, and black women. We examine how three factors affect changing access to managerial positions: (1) industrial restructuring, (2) the process of bottom-up ascription, and (3) organizational characteristics. Accounting for compositional shifts in the labor supply, we find that white male managerial overrepresentation remains virtually unchanged since 1966, even while other status groups make gains. A significant portion of the observed equal opportunity advance for women and blacks takes place in the expanding service sectors of the economy. We also find that female and minority gains are enhanced in larger and more managerially intensive workplaces. For all groups, managerial representation is increasingly tied to the presence of similar others in nonmanagerial jobs. Further examination reveals a new status hierarchy of managers and subordinates--a hierarchy wherein white men are likely to manage men of all races. White women, in comparison, are realizing a growing racial privilege in managing women of color.

Last of all, the Mexicans; in-bred and isolation-shrunken descendants of the Castilian world-finders; living almost as much against the house as in it; ignorant as slaves, and more courteous than [...]

THIS IS A WORLD OF CONTRASTS, among and between people. It is a world of variation, often in our own backyards. Fittingly, then, my life, like that of many others, [...]

What can account for the differences in marriage and employment decisions across blacks and whites? To answer this question, I develop a dynamic, equilibrium model of marriage. Two explanations for the racial differences in behavior are considered: differences in population supplies and wages. Black-white differences in population supplies explain one-fifth of the difference in marriage rates and between one-fifth and one-third of the differences in employment rates across race. Removing the racial gap in wages eliminates the differences in employment but increases the differences in marriage rates.

This paper examines inequalities between white and black and brown populations in Brazil within occupations that require university degree. The main result confirms that once reached the university degree, blacks/brown usually obtain smaller but comparable income to that of whites. Although some racial discrimination in labor market may exist, such result corroborates other studies that identify schooling differentials as the main reason for the high income inequality found in Brazil. Keywords Labor market. Social inequalities- Racial inequalities. Labor discrimination. Inequalities in Brazil

Race and sex differentials in labor market outcomes in Brazil appear substantial, phenomena often tied to occupational segregation. This paper presents an array of Duncan indices of dissimilarity to investigate the magnitude and contours of occupational differentiation in Brazil, as well as changes in the recent past, constructed from Pesquisa Nacional pot Amostra de Domicilios (PNAD) microdata for 1989 and 2001. Findings include the facts that measurable occupational differentation by sex is over twice as high as that by race and that differentiation on both counts is highest among people 35 and older and outside the Northeastern region. Occupational differentiation by race appears comparable among women and men, but may be higher among women if accurately measured. Racial differentiation grows with education, while sexual segregation declines. Differentiation has declined modestly since 1989 in almost all categories except by race among younger people, men and the most educated. Keywords Occupational segregation. Race- Ethnicity. Sex. Brazil-Labor markets. Discrimination

To authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01268.x Byline: Eleanor K. Seaton (1), Tiffany Yip (2), Robert M. Sellers (3) Abstract: This study tested the longitudinal association between perceptions of racial discrimination and racial identity among a sample of 219 African American adolescents, aged 14 to 18. Structural equation modeling was used to test relations between perceptions of racial discrimination and racial identity dimensions, namely, racial centrality, private regard, and public regard at 3 time points. The results indicated that perceived racial discrimination at Time 1 was negatively linked to public regard at Time 2. Nested analyses using age were conducted, and perceptions of racial discrimination at Time 2 were negatively linked to private regard at Time 3 among older adolescents. The findings imply that perceived racial discrimination is linked to negative views that the broader society has of African Americans. Author Affiliation: (1)University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (2)Fordham University (3)University of Michigan Article note: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Eleanor K. Seaton, Department of Psychology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box 3270, Davie Hall, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3270. Electronic mail may be sent to eseaton@unc.edu.

This study investigates perceptions of workplace discrimination among racial minorities in Canada. Specifically, the study examines how objective experiences of disadvantage and expectations for equity influence racial minorities' perceptions of discrimination. The results indicate that while both of these factors affect perceptions of discrimination, expectations for equity may be especially important. Although new immigrants are among the most disadvantaged groups in the Canadian labor market, they are less likely to perceive discrimination than longer term immigrants, who may have higher expectations for equitable treatment. Education also increases the perception of discrimination among immigrants, perhaps due to the higher expectations of educated immigrants. Lastly, objective income inequity is not found to be related to perceived discrimination. Keywords Discrimination * Racial minorities * Perceptions * Employment inequity

ABSTRACT In the standard account, American sex equality law rests on a partial and imperfect analogy to race, developed in the 1970s by feminists intent on establishing formal equality between [...]

Objectives. We examined the association between work discrimination and morbidity among Filipinos in the United States, independent of more-global measures of discrimination. Methods. Data were collected from the Filipino American Community Epidemiological Survey. Our analysis focused on 1652 participants who were employed at the time of data collection, and we used negative binomial regression to determine the association between work discrimination and health conditions. Results. The report of workplace discrimination specific to being Filipino was associated with an increased number of health conditions. This association persisted even after we controlled for everyday discrimination, a general assessment of discrimination; job concerns, a general assessment of unpleasant work circumstances; having immigrated for employment reasons; job category; income; education; gender; and other sociodemographic factors. Conclusions. Racial discrimination in the workplace was positively associated with poor health among Filipino Americans after we controlled for reports of everyday discrimination and general concerns about one's job. This finding shows the importance of considering the work setting as a source of discrimination and its effect on morbidity among racial minorities. (doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.110163)

The effects of racial segregation and political threat with reference to whites and African-American on police force size are studied. Findings reveal that whites' threat is more than one-third of the effect of African-American on police force size.

Occupational inequality by sex and race play an important role in elections in the U.S. at county-level.

Do African Americans, Hispanics, and non-Hispanic whites differ in their explanations of the socioeconomic divide separating blacks and whites in the United States? Have such explanations changed over time? To answer these questions, I use data from the 1977 to 2004 General Social Surveys (GSS) to map race/ethnic differences in support for, trends in, and the determinants of seven 'modes of explanation' for blacks' disadvantage. Trends over time indicate the continuation of a long-standing decline in non-Hispanic whites' use of an ability-based (innate inferiority) explanation. Non-Hispanic whites 'beliefs in a purely motivational and a purely educational explanation are increasing, however, along with the view that none of the explanations offered in the GSS explain blacks' disadvantage. African Americans and Hispanics also evidence increases in a purely motivational explanation, but they differ from non-Hispanic whites in demonstrating clear declines in structural beliefs--especially the perception that discrimination explains blacks' lower socioeconomic status. These conservative shifts in blacks' and Hispanics' beliefs result in greater similarity with non-Hispanic whites over time. Notably, however, significant 'static' race/ethnic group differences remain: non-Hispanic whites score highest, and blacks lowest, on a purely motivational explanation, while African Americans are more likely than both non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics to endorse a discrimination-based explanation. I conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for racial policy support.

This research examines the individual-level and contextual correlates of punitive attitudes in the United States. Prior research suggests that the demographic composition and economic conditions of geographic areas influence public support for punitive policies. Yet, these findings rest on assumptions about individual perceptions of minority groups as threatening. This work builds on the threat framework by measuring the concept of "perceived threat" and examining the association between aggregate social conditions, perceived threat and punitive sentiments. Analysis of newly collected data suggests that individual perceptions of African Americans as threatening to economic resources is a strong predictor of punitive attitudes. In addition, respondents residing in areas with higher unemployment rates and places that experienced a recent increase in the size of the African American population are more punitive. The latter effect is largely mediated by perceptions of African Americans as threatening to material resources for white respondents. The results agree with racial threat perspectives on social control, but we go beyond extant research by unpacking the micro-level processes that are central to the threat hypothesis., This research draws on group threat theory (Blalock 1967; Blumer 1958) to investigate the individual-level and contextual correlates of punitive attitudes. Group threat theory posits that prejudice and inter-group hostility […]

Objectives. We analyzed the relations of two 1990 dimensions of racial residential segregation (isolation and concentration) with 1998 injection drug use prevalence among Black adult residents of 93 large US metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs). Methods. We estimated injection drug use prevalence among Black adults in each MSA by analyzing 3 databases documenting injection drug users' encounters with the health care system. Multiple linear regression methods were used to investigate the relationship of isolation and concentration to the natural logarithm of Black adult injection drug use prevalence, controlling for possible confounders. Results. The median injection drug use prevalence was 1983 per 100000 Black adults (interquartile range: 1422 to 2759 per 100000). The median isolation index was 0.48 (range: 0.05 to 0.84): in half the MSAs studied, the average Black resident inhabited a census tract where 48% or more of the residents were Black. The multiple regression model indicates that an increase of 0.50 in the isolation index was associated with a 23% increase in injection drug use prevalence among Black adults. Concentration was unrelated to the outcome. Conclusions. Residential isolation is positively related to Black injection drug use prevalence in MSAs. Research into the pathways linking isolation to injection drug use is needed. (Am J Public Health. 2007;97:344-352. doi:10.2105/AJPH. 2005.074542)

Objectives. We sought to determine whether differences in the prevalences of 5 specific pregnancy complications or differences in case fatality rates for those complications explained the disproportionate risk of pregnancy-related mortality for Black women compared with White women in the United States. Methods. We used national data sets to calculate prevalence and case-fatality rates among Black and White women for preeclampsia, eclampsia, abruptio placentae, placenta previa, and postpartum hemorrhage for the years 1988 to 1999. Results. Black women did not have significantly greater prevalence rates than White women. However, Black women with these conditions were 2 to 3 times more likely to die from them than were White women. Conclusions. Higher pregnancy-related mortality among Black women from preeclampsia, eclampsia, abruptio placentae, placenta previa, and postpartum hemorrhage is largely attributable to higher case-fatality rates. Reductions in case-fatality rates may be made by defining more precisely the mechanisms that affect complication severity and risk of death, including complex interactions of biology and health services, and then applying this knowledge in designing interventions that improve pregnancy-related outcomes. (Am J Public Health. 2007; 97:247-251. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.072975)

Though less affluent black and white boys and men adhere to similar gendered norms and aspirations and begin with similar labor market potential, they are often sorted into very different and unequal educational and labor market trajectories. Using national-level descriptive data and key qualitative studies of institutional processes, this article contrasts less affluent black and white men's educational, labor market, and criminal justice system experiences and elucidates the processes of differentiation that reproduce those unequal patterns. In each institutional arena, less affluent black males pay a disproportionate price for enacting masculinity norms in comparison to white males. White boys and men are also presented with more desirable labor market options (and second-chance opportunities when they need help) that are denied their black male counterparts. This article suggests that only a complex strategy, which requires less affluent black men to resist more constructively while citizen groups hold institutions more publicly accountable, can enhance the labor market trajectories of black men. Keywords: masculinity; employment; networks; schoolwork; racial disparity; incarceration