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The study aimed to investigate the experiences and exploitation of Ugandan migrant domestic workers who returned from Saudi Arabia. The study followed a constructivist paradigm, an interpretive framework that focuses on individuals' understanding of the world and their creation of unique meanings. A qualitative approach was utilised, specifically employing a phenomenological case study design. Data was gathered through unstructured interviews with twenty-eight (28) migrant domestic workers. Thematic analysis was employed to analyse the data. The findings regarding the lived experiences and exploitation of returnee Ugandan migrant domestic workers were visualised through concept maps created using NVivo version 10.0. The study discovered that the returnee workers' experiences were primarily related to their interactions with various individuals in their employers' households, including dealing with abusive employers, inconsiderate children and relatives, and challenging working conditions. Other experiences involved working in an unfriendly environment, carrying out difficult tasks, facing heavy workloads, experiencing occupational health difficulties, enduring physical abuse, inadequate rest, food deprivation, sexual advances, and false allegations. Consequently, providing legal protection for domestic workers in Saudi Arabia is crucial. Although progress has been made in addressing legal gaps, particularly regarding weekly rest days, more work remains. This includes implementing or expanding minimum wages and aligning working hour restrictions with those applicable to other workers. It is therefore recommended that Uganda and Saudi Arabia revise labour export laws to ensure that the rights of migrant domestic workers are respected.

In the period following the military operation against insurgents in the Swat district during 2009-10, the Pakistani government, with support from international organizations, initiated a comprehensive program aimed at the rehabilitation and reintegration of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). This research study utilizes the Delphi method to gather data through face-to-face interviews with officials involved in the rehabilitation efforts. The analysis revealed a range of challenges, such as security threats, infrastructural deficiencies, bureaucratic complexities, educational system revival, unmet donor commitments, financial constraints, weakened local governance, and communication breakdowns. Despite these obstacles, strategic interventions have ameliorated the IDPs' conditions, including enhanced security, temporary infrastructure, international partnerships, makeshift educational provisions, and a dedicated rehabilitation budget. Nevertheless, the full rehabilitation of IDPs remains an unachieved goal. This article suggests that successfully reintegrating affected communities requires innovative strategies tailored to Pakistan's unique sociostructural context, which could serve as a model for similar situations globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, the reintegration of Chinese international student returnees intersects with China’s critical effort to combat a significant brain drain of highly skilled talents, highlighting an unprecedented psychological battleground. This convergence underscores the urgent need for nuanced research to navigate the uncharted territory of their mental health. Methods: Employing Bayesian analysis supported by Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithms, this study examined depression prevalence and associated factors among 1,014 Chinese returnees. The sample comprised 44.87% male participants (455), 51.58% female participants (523), and 3.55% identifying as “Others” (36), with an age distribution of 61.74% aged 18-30 (626), 28.80% aged 31-40 (292), and 9.47% aged 41-50 (96). The mean age of participants was 29.6 years, ranging from 18 to 50 years. PHQ-9 diagnoses revealed alarming levels of depression, with 47.9% exhibiting a moderately severe degree of depressive disorder. Results: Our findings highlight the intricate interplay between identity clusters— “homestayers” (those leaning towards a Chinese cultural identity), “navigators” (those with a bicultural identity), and “wayfarers” (those leaning towards a foreign cultural identity)—and the likelihood of depression. Specifically, homestayers showed a clear and strong negative association, navigators demonstrated a positive association, and wayfarers had a positive yet unclear correlation with depression levels. Furthermore, acculturation, age, and gender showed no significant effects, whereas education mildly mitigated depression. Discussion: Based on these findings, we suggest the implementation of bettertailored mental health support and policies to facilitate smoother reintegration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Republic of Serbia is traditionally a country of emigration, especially since the 1960s. As a result of this emigration, return migration has become an increasingly intensive migratory process in the 21st century. This study aims to examine the factors behind return migration, as well as to explore the characteristics of the reintegration process in Serbia, including the sustainability of return. This paper is based on a survey (N = 172) and interviews (N = 20) conducted with return migrants in Serbia. The research findings point to the diversity of the return migration factors, among which a longing for the country of origin is singled out as the most important. Regarding the reintegration process, this study highlights several differences that are apparent between retired returnees on the one hand and other returnees (students, employed, unemployed) on the other. The results show that the satisfaction with quality of life upon return is higher among older returnees and that the satisfaction with quality of life decreases as the respondents' level of education increases. It is also found that the sustainability of return is connected to the life satisfaction and that respondents who plan to migrate again are the least satisfied with the quality of life compared to those who plan to stay and those who have not decided yet. This paper provides insights into some of the critical elements of the return migration and reintegration process in Serbia. Since return migrants can contribute to sustainable socio-economic development due to their human, social and financial capital, this study may be of relevance to the development of strategies and the implementation of policies in the domain of migration governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Documentary Hypothesis proposed by Julius Wellhausen has sparked discussions for over a century. The core of this debate revolves around the perspective through which the creation of the Torah should be viewed. Previous studies have often neglected the focus on "people". The Torah was created by individuals and was profoundly influenced by the era in which they lived. In this specific study, instead of concentrating on the texts or historical background, we should focus on the "authors" or "redactors", exploring how they processed and created the texts under the influence of their times. In Jewish history, the destruction of the Northern Kingdom and the Southern Kingdom played a crucial role in the creation of the Torah. After the fall of the Northern Kingdom, the Deuteronomists, reflecting on historical lessons, formulated a set of legal norms for theology and society, which established theological standards for further interpreting and writing ancient Jewish history. Following the destruction of the Southern Kingdom, Diaspora group and Returnees, centered on reflecting on their catastrophes and responding to contemporary crises, further created and integrated texts of ancestral traditions and the Promised Land, embedding the historical memory of ancestors-land for the Jewish people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the end of the colonial empire, following the Revolution of April 25th, 1974, the borders and identity of the Portuguese nation were redefined. In this context, around half a million citizens from the former colonies were repatriated to Portugal. Their arrival raises important questions about national identity and collective memory. Through a multidimensional analysis of memory, which reveals the complexity of memorial production and reproduction, this article addresses issues of citizenship and (post-)imperial identity related to Portuguese returnees. The text highlights the identity friction resulting from the failure to integrate the returnees into the national collective memory. The recent presence of these Portuguese in Africa and the need for their return after the end of the empire in 1975 questions the narrative of the country of the Discoveries and the "heroes of the Sea", calling into question the idea of an imperial history without colonial and racial conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Introduction: This study investigates the heritage language performance of Turkish- German returnees upon their reintegration into Turkey and explores the impact of external factors on their proficiency in the (re-)activated heritage language (HL). Methods: Data collection involved the participation of 28 Turkish heritage speakers and a control group of 28 monolingual speakers. The language proficiency of both groups was assessed through a cloze test and an error correction task with a focus on converbial constructions, evidentiality and direct object case marking in Turkish. A sociolinguistic background questionnaire was used to obtain information about their language experiences. The study focused on understanding the individual and group differences in returnee's heritage language performance. Additionally, random forest analysis was employed to investigate the relative influence of external factors on individual variability within the returnee group. Results and Discussion: The analysis of results revealed notable group differences between the returnees and the control group, emphasizing the unique linguistic challenges faced by those who returned to Turkey. Within the returnee group, there was considerable individual variability in heritage language performance. The subsequent exploration of individual variation highlighted the significant role of external factors. Notably, the length of residence in Germany, the age at which participants returned to Turkey, and the frequency of Turkish language use in their migration context emerged as significant predictors of the returnee participants' proficiency in their (re-)activated HL. Surprisingly, formal contact with the dominant German language did not exert a substantial impact on the returnees' language proficiency, suggesting the nuanced influence of various external factors on heritage language development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Documentary Hypothesis proposed by Julius Wellhausen has sparked discussions for over a century. The core of this debate revolves around the perspective through which the creation of the Torah should be viewed. Previous studies have often neglected the focus on “people”. The Torah was created by individuals and was profoundly influenced by the era in which they lived. In this specific study, instead of concentrating on the texts or historical background, we should focus on the “authors” or “redactors”, exploring how they processed and created the texts under the influence of their times. In Jewish history, the destruction of the Northern Kingdom and the Southern Kingdom played a crucial role in the creation of the Torah. After the fall of the Northern Kingdom, the Deuteronomists, reflecting on historical lessons, formulated a set of legal norms for theology and society, which established theological standards for further interpreting and writing ancient Jewish history. Following the destruction of the Southern Kingdom, Diaspora group and Returnees, centered on reflecting on their catastrophes and responding to contemporary crises, further created and integrated texts of ancestral traditions and the Promised Land, embedding the historical memory of ancestors-land for the Jewish people.

IntroductionThis study investigates the heritage language performance of Turkish-German returnees upon their reintegration into Turkey and explores the impact of external factors on their proficiency in the (re-)activated heritage language (HL).MethodsData collection involved the participation of 28 Turkish heritage speakers and a control group of 28 monolingual speakers. The language proficiency of both groups was assessed through a cloze test and an error correction task with a focus on converbial constructions, evidentiality and direct object case marking in Turkish. A sociolinguistic background questionnaire was used to obtain information about their language experiences. The study focused on understanding the individual and group differences in returnee’s heritage language performance. Additionally, random forest analysis was employed to investigate the relative influence of external factors on individual variability within the returnee group.Results and DiscussionThe analysis of results revealed notable group differences between the returnees and the control group, emphasizing the unique linguistic challenges faced by those who returned to Turkey. Within the returnee group, there was considerable individual variability in heritage language performance. The subsequent exploration of individual variation highlighted the significant role of external factors. Notably, the length of residence in Germany, the age at which participants returned to Turkey, and the frequency of Turkish language use in their migration context emerged as significant predictors of the returnee participants’ proficiency in their (re-)activated HL. Surprisingly, formal contact with the dominant German language did not exert a substantial impact on the returnees’ language proficiency, suggesting the nuanced influence of various external factors on heritage language development.

In Ethiopia as far as the livelihood and survival strategies pursued by international returnees is concerned, such scientific study is scanty or non-existent. The study was devoted to explore the livelihoods and survival strategies chased among the returnees in Addis Ababa to provide scientific evidences and insights for decision making and future intervention efforts. Data were collected from 402 randomly drawn sample returnees via a cross-sectional survey. The supplementary data were collected from purposively selected focus group discussion and semi-structured interview participants. Descriptive statistics and Ordinal Logistic Regression Model (OLRM) were employed to analyze the data. The study revealed that while unemployment was found to be the most categorized livelihood strategy by which returnees were hallmarked and rated above the scale mean on the three-point likert scale (mean = 2.18, Standard Deviation/SD = 0.91); wage-employment and self-employment were rated below the scale mean (mean = 1.41, SD = 0.61; and mean = 1.39, SD = 0.56) respectively, which reflects that majority of the study population weren’t involved in livelihood strategies common in urban settings. OLRM results confirmed that educational attainment and age of the returnees made the first and the second largest contributions in predicting wage-employment in the positive and negative directions with beta coefficients (β = 0.985; and β = |-0.611| respectively at (p ≤ 0.000) level of significance. A notable proportion of Ethiopian returnees deemed to be unemployed and not engaged in any urban livelihood activities and deprived of enjoying the potential benefits obtained from self-employment and wage-employment activities in the study area.

Migration from the global South to the North is a contemporary problem with a high number of casualties. This study examines the challenges of rehabilitation and reintegration of returnee migrants from Libya in Benin-city, Edo State, Nigeria. Maslow’s Human Needs theory and Push-Pull migration theory were adopted as a framework for the study. Primary data was collected through the use of semi-structured interview guide and non-participant observation. A total number of 20 oral interviews were conducted, which included 10 in-depth interviews with the returnees and 10 key informant interviews with the coordinators and stakeholders of the rehabilitation and reintegration programme in Benin-city, Edo State. Secondary sources included books, journals and Newspapers. Findings show that weak monitoring and evaluation, inadequate funding, stigmatization, politicization of the programme by the Edo State government officials and other stakeholders leading the reintegration programme, are factors that challenge the rehabilitation and reintegration of the returnees from Libya in Benin-City, Edo State, Nigeria. Among other things, the study recommended that effective monitoring and evaluation mechanism should be deployed, and collaboration with donor agencies and host nations by the Edo State government is also needed to improve funding and ensure sustainable reintegration of the returnees.

Scholars have observed that in the face of wage differentials that favor destination countries, an increasing number of presumably rational Ghanaian migrants in developed countries choose to return to Ghana. To explore this phenomenon, a systematic literature review methodology was employed in collecting, sampling and analyzing migration literature in general, and Ghanaian migration literature in particular to ascertain the dominant mechanisms that surround the return and reintegration of returned Ghanaian immigrants. The paper shows that (un)favorable social, economic and political conditions in Ghana and destination countries are the critical underlying conditions that influence the return of Ghanaian immigrants — suggesting that Ghanaian immigrants are rational actors who perform a cost-benefit analysis of the contextual realities that circumscribes the economic landscape of Ghana and destination countries. The paper identifies that the challenges associated with returnees’ reintegration in Ghana have social, economic and institutional aspects. Against this backdrop, the paper recommends the formulation of a comprehensive return migration policy that emphasizes the sociocultural context of immigrants. The paper advocates for an individual, community and structural intervention to facilitate the mobilization and effective use of returnees’ socio-economic capital.

Scientific evidences on determinants of return migration decision were scanty in Ethiopia. The study is an endeavour made to unveil the determinants of return migration decision in Addis Ababa. A cross-sectional study was conducted on a sample of 402 international returnees drawn via a simple random sampling method to provide a platform for future intervention efforts. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive, inferential statistics, and binary logistic regression model (BLRM). The chi-square test indicated that there is no statistically significant relationship between forced and voluntary return modalities and the sex, roles in the family, religion, and educational status of the returnees at the 0.05 level of significance. Results of BLRM depicted that destination area factors had more substantial positive impact with the odds ratio of 85.70 than homeland and personal factors with the odds ratio of 25.58, and 9.12 respectively, despite, all the three factors have a positive effect on likelihood of making return migration decision at (P<0.001). The results disclosed that Ethiopian emigrants that constitute a significant number were subjected to coercion in the destination areas to evacuate instead of making free choice to return, which inexorably could lead the returnees to unsustainable livelihoods in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigated contrastive perception of L1 phonological categories in Albanian–English bilinguals who returned to Albania after living abroad for over on average a decade. In Standard Albanian, there are phonemic contrasts between /c/ and /tʃ/, /ɫ/ and /l/, and /ɹ/ and /r/. These phonemic contrasts do not occur in English. Using a "real speech" binary minimal pair identification task, we compared the accuracy and response times of bilingual returnees against functional Albanian monolinguals who had never lived abroad. Results showed that (1) reaction times for /c/ versus /tʃ/ were longest for both groups, indicating that this contrast was "harder" than the other contrasts. Surprisingly, (2) bilinguals outperformed monolinguals in accurately identifying /c/ versus /tʃ/; and (3) no significant group differences were found for the other two phonemic contrasts. In combination with other research showing that Albanian is undergoing a merger of /c/ and /tʃ/, our findings suggest that this merger is more advanced in monolinguals than bilinguals—probably because the bilinguals were abroad when the merger started. Examination of variation within the bilinguals indicated that (4) the younger the speaker was when they left Albania, and the more recently they had returned, the lower their accuracy was in identifying the laterals. These phonological findings enhance our understanding of perceptual L1 attrition whilst underlining the need to examine language change in the country of origin in L1 attrition research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Ethiopia as far as the livelihood and survival strategies pursued by international returnees is concerned, such scientific study is scanty or non-existent. The study was devoted to explore the livelihoods and survival strategies chased among the returnees in Addis Ababa to provide scientific evidences and insights for decision making and future intervention efforts. Data were collected from 402 randomly drawn sample returnees via a cross-sectional survey. The supplementary data were collected from purposively selected focus group discussion and semi-structured interview participants. Descriptive statistics and Ordinal Logistic Regression Model (OLRM) were employed to analyze the data. The study revealed that while unemployment was found to be the most categorized livelihood strategy by which returnees were hallmarked and rated above the scale mean on the three-point likert scale (mean = 2.18, Standard Deviation/SD = 0.91); wage-employment and self-employment were rated below the scale mean (mean = 1.41, SD = 0.61; and mean = 1.39, SD = 0.56) respectively, which reflects that majority of the study population weren't involved in livelihood strategies common in urban settings. OLRM results confirmed that educational attainment and age of the returnees made the first and the second largest contributions in predicting wage-employment in the positive and negative directions with beta coefficients (β = 0.985; and β = |-0.611| respectively at (p ≤ 0.000) level of significance. A notable proportion of Ethiopian returnees deemed to be unemployed and not engaged in any urban livelihood activities and deprived of enjoying the potential benefits obtained from self-employment and wage-employment activities in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chinese international students who studied in the United States received “double stigmatization” from American and Chinese authorities because of the “political othering” tactic during COVID-19. The research used a phenomenological approach to examine why and how specifically the transnational identity of Chinese international students in the United States shifted during the double stigmatization. The researcher conducted a total of three rounds of interviews with 15 Chinese international students who studied in the United States and returned to China between 2018 and 2020, which culminated in 45 interviews through a longitudinal study to probe the transnational identities of this population before and during the double stigmatization; the study also examined how the mindsponge mechanism worked during the identity shifts and the interplay among stigmatization, transnational identity shifts, and the mindsponge mechanism. The study concluded that before COVID-19, Chinese international students had been stigmatized in both China and the United States. And there were three identity clusters for international students’ transnational identity: homestayers, wayfarers, and navigators based on four dimensions: intercultural competence, relocation of locality, diaspora consciousness, and attachment between China and the US. The study concluded that during the double stigmatization, Chinese international students in all three identity clusters took individualism into their core values, whereas Chinese traditional values, such as nationalism, collectivism, and obedience to authority waned. In addition, the study corroborated the trust evaluator’s gatekeeper role and substantiated the validity and effectiveness of cost-benefit analysis on an individual’s decision to accept or reject new information and values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an important livelihood strategy choice to promote the sustainable development of themselves and regions, returnees' entrepreneurship has played a vital role in the governance of all-level Chinese local governments since the 21st century. The policy attention reflects the importance that the local governments attach to this issue, and the evolution process also reflects relevant policies' internal rules and characteristics. Based on this, this paper, taking 242 policy texts related to returnees' entrepreneurship issued by local governments from 2000 to 2021 as the research objects, uses grounded theory and social network analysis in order to explore the policy attention evolution from the aspects of time, space, specific policy domains and cooperative relationship among policy subjects. Finally, this research finds the main conclusions as follows: (1) The policy attention evolution on time dimension has the characteristic of synchronism, different levels and "reciprocal U". (2) The policy attention evolution on space dimension is closely linked to "pull" and "push" forces of local population flow and has neighborhood effects. (3) The policy attention evolution on specific policy areas will gradually spread and diversify with the change in local governance environment and stage goals. (4) The evolution trend of collaborative social network among policy objects has the characteristic of "loose-central-loose". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unprecedented outbreak of covid-19 has affected the living conditions of irregular migrants across the globe. This article explores the challenges of cross-border migrants amid the covid-19 outbreak. It accentuates on investigating the life trajectories of irregular migrant returnees since the pandemic started. A mini survey case study was employed to collect data from selected returnees quarantined in Dire Dawa city, Ethiopia. Humanitarian workers and returnee host community members were also entailed for the data triangulation. Key informant interview and questionnaire were administered during the data collection. Partial random and convenience sampling techniques were employed to outreach the survey participants, while key informant interviewees were purposively selected. The study establishes that irregular migrants are a severely affected segment of society by the pandemic outbreak. It is unveiled that covid-19 has induced forced deportation of migrants that has risked them losing advantages they sought at the beginning of their migration. Most of the irregular migrants were excluded from stimulus packages meant to mitigate the economic crisis induced by the pandemic because they lack legal documents to claim the benefit. It is confirmed that migrants contracted covid-19 to a greater extent, forced into deportation at the time cases surged and forced to quarantine on arrival at the home country, thereby increasing their vulnerabilities. Measures taken to curb the virus has interrupted informal business activities overwhelmingly absorbing irregular migrant workers which mutated them back into impoverishment. The study demonstrates that covid-19 has ravaged the living conditions of irregular migrants and that there is need for a specific adaptive response that is considerate of migrant victims from the concerned stakeholders.

Since the Syrian civil war erupted in 2011, an increasing number of European youth have joined Salafi-jihadist milieus in their home countries and/or in the Syrian/Iraqi conflict zone. Some are ardent believers in ending their days as—what they perceive to be—martyrs. Others renege on their commitment, return, and resocialize into conventional society. While engagement, disengagement, and resocialization have each been explored as phases separately within the existing literature, a coherent, criminological study of how those sequences are interconnected has still not been explored in a Danish context from an empirical angle. On the basis of qualitative interviews with three Danish Salafi-jihadist defectors (for example, from the Islamic State), this article unravels the connection and disconnection between engagement, disengagement, and resocialization. The analysis is theoretically informed by David Matza's theory of drift (1964). However, the theory does have its limitations. As the commitment to Salafi-jihadism entails more than simply an "episodic release from moral constraint", which defines drift, the informants are only part-time drifters, and here it is argued that the informants are rather entering and exiting a spiraling vortex of Salafi-jihadism. These entries and exits are fueled by the returnees' nurtured and fractured fantasies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kosovo and Bosnia Herzegovina are entirely different countries and at the same time similar in terms of the situation of returnees after armed conflicts. Both are relevant because of the large number of people who were displaced, because of the ethnic dimension of the displacements and because the political changes produced after the conflicts are so far-reaching that they reshaped the map of Europe. It is a commonplace to affirm that social and political interculturalism is tantamount to tolerance and social peace, especially in post-war periods, when it is essential to speak of reconciliation in order to ensure that a return to normality is possible. This article seeks to question, at least as a self-evident and universal truth, the unreserved virtue of interculturality imposed in the immediate aftermath of violent conflict. In these contexts, greater importance must be given to the ethnic groups that have been left on the margins of exclusion. In Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo, the collapse of communism, political changes and conflicts have had enormous socio-economic consequences on Roma ethnicities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the experiences of Serbian citizens who came back to their country of origin just before or at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the introduction of the state of emergency. We analysed their motives to return and their experiences during self-isolation. We also highlighted the problems they encountered at the beginning of the pandemic and the impact they had expected the pandemic would have on their social and economic status. The paper covers their plans for mobility after the end of pandemic, as well as potential motives for staying in Serbia. The aim is to show that even though a large number of citizens came back to Serbia when the crisis broke out and could not have predicted what would happen to their social and economic status in their destination countries, they still did not intend to stay in Serbia after the end of the pandemic. The whole social system in Serbia would need to be changed for them to decide to stay. Discussion of the results is based on data collected at the beginning of pandemic by researchers from the Institute of Sociological Research, one of whom was the author of this paper. Due to the health risks related to the coronavirus, we used a quantitative method: a questionnaire distributed online via the Google platform. As such, the respondents were mostly young and educated people who took part in the research because they used the internet on a daily basis and were able to fill in the survey easily. For this reason, the results presented in this article cannot be generalised to represent the whole population, but only the respondents of this research. The findings are placed within a contextual framework in which the world’s population is extremely mobile. We recognised a similarly high level of mobility among Serbian citizens, too. The COVID-19 pandemic has affected many different aspects of life, and so a large share of respondents decided to come back to their home country. This was a normal coping strategy, especially for those migrants who did not have officially recognised status in their destination country. Returnees faced many problems when they returned to their home country; they had to self-isolate and did not know what would happen with their jobs once the pandemic was over. They also didn’t know if they would receive an income or what would happen with the social system, either in their home country or in their country of emigration. Analysis of the data revealed that despite their expectations of an economic crisis following the drastic measures introduced to suppress the spread of the coronavirus, a large share of respondents believed that the crisis wouldn’t have an impact on their material and social status in their destination country. Because of that, we noted that most respondents wished to go back to their destination country after the crisis was over. However, it’s suggested that if we want them to stay in Serbia, then the state should introduce measures that include both economic and social reforms.

The unprecedented outbreak of covid-19 has affected the living conditions of irregular migrants across the globe. This article explores the challenges of cross-border migrants amid the covid-19 outbreak. It accentuates on investigating the life trajectories of irregular migrant returnees since the pandemic started. A mini survey case study was employed to collect data from selected returnees quarantined in Dire Dawa city, Ethiopia. Humanitarian workers and returnee host community members were also entailed for the data triangulation. Key informant interview and questionnaire were administered during the data collection. Partial random and convenience sampling techniques were employed to outreach the survey participants, while key informant interviewees were purposively selected. The study establishes that irregular migrants are a severely affected segment of society by the pandemic outbreak. It is unveiled that covid-19 has induced forced deportation of migrants that has risked them losing advantages they sought at the beginning of their migration. Most of the irregular migrants were excluded from stimulus packages meant to mitigate the economic crisis induced by the pandemic because they lack legal documents to claim the benefit. It is confirmed that migrants contracted covid-19 to a greater extent, forced into deportation at the time cases surged and forced to quarantine on arrival at the home country, thereby increasing their vulnerabilities. Measures taken to curb the virus has interrupted informal business activities overwhelmingly absorbing irregular migrant workers which mutated them back into impoverishment. The study demonstrates that covid-19 has ravaged the living conditions of irregular migrants and that there is need for a specific adaptive response that is considerate of migrant victims from the concerned stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the problem of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) foreign terrorist fighters who return to Indonesia, or called returnees. The establishment of ISIS in Syria and its propaganda related to the Khilafah attracted many Muslims in the world to emigrate, jihad, and settle in Syria. After the defeat suffered by ISIS in various regions in Syria, finally many of these foreign terrorist fighters returned to their respective countries of origin. So far, there has been a lot of literature and research that explains the potential threats related to the return of foreign terrorist fighters to their home countries. However, by studying Indonesian returnees, this research found that returnees returned and decided not to be part of a terrorist group network in Indonesia anymore. This change of understanding becomes interesting to be analysed further so that things get changed in their understanding so that they no longer want to be affiliated with ISIS or terrorist groups who are committed to ISIS. This research is basic research that aims to explore new issues. Changes in the understanding of Muslim groups that initially supported ISIS can change. This phenomenon examined using Just World Theory and Deconstruction to find out what factors influence the change in understanding. The results found several factors such as family, feeling uncomfortable, the cruelty of ISIS, experiencing sexual violence, expectations, and teachings in the Quran and Hadits.

While shame is often cast in a negative light as a response accompanied by destructive forces in modern culture, this article examines a different phenomenon and argues that shame plays an important positive role for post-exilic returnees in Ezra/Nehemiah. Shame can be progressive and edifying if it is oriented in the right direction. This article surveys key shame terms in Ezra/Nehemiah by examining בושׁ I in Ezra 8:22, בושׁ I and כלם in Ezra 9:6-7, חרפה in Neh 1:3; 2:17 and בוזה in Neh 3:36 (Eng. 4:4) for their semantics and concludes that shame plays a positive role in social control for the post-exilic returnees. Shame, in each of these cases, motivated the people of God not for bad but for good; it contributed to the rebuilding of the temple of the Lord, the rebuilding of the wall, and the restoration of a holy people to the Lord in the midst of fierce opposition.

Abstract Background Migration to India is a common livelihood strategy for poor people in remote Western Nepal. To date, little research has explored the degree and nature of healthcare access among Nepali migrant workers in India. This study explores the experiences of returnee Nepali migrants with regard to accessing healthcare and the perspectives of stakeholders in the government, support organizations, and health providers working with migrant workers in India. Methods Six focus group discussions (FGDs) and 12 in-depth interviews with returnee migrants were conducted by trained moderators in six districts in Western Nepal in late 2017. A further 12 stakeholders working in the health and education sector were also interviewed. With the consent of the participants, FGDs and interviews were audio-recorded. They were then transcribed and translated into English and the data were analysed thematically. Results The interviewed returnee migrants worked in 15 of India’s 29 states, most as daily-wage labourers. Most were from among the lowest castes so called-Dalits. Most migrants had had difficulty accessing healthcare services in India. The major barriers to access were the lack of insurance, low wages, not having an Indian identification card tied to individual biometrics so called: Aadhaar card. Other barriers were unsupportive employers, discrimination at healthcare facilities and limited information about the locations of healthcare services. Conclusions Nepali migrants experience difficulties in accessing healthcare in India. Partnerships between the Nepali and Indian governments, migrant support organizations and relevant stakeholders such as healthcare providers, government agencies and employers should be strengthened so that this vulnerable population can access the healthcare they are entitled to.

This paper presents the results of a mixed-methods survey of the perspectives of 208 Dutch Muslim women on the reintegration of female returnees from the Islamic State (IS). Based on the responses and written statements made by Dutch Muslim women of Moroccan, Surinamese and Turkish ethnicities, respondents perceived greater risks associated with different female returnees, especially if the community in which respondents lived were resistant to the idea. However, Muslim female returnees were seen in sympathetic terms when perceived as presenting fewer risks to national security. The study demonstrates how receptive different Dutch Muslim women are to the reintegration of female returnees from IS, where issues of identity and political culture also play a role. The findings suggest that successful reintegration also needs sustainable reintegration into an emotionally supportive social network on the one hand and that programs need community support and acceptance on the other. The gendered approach offers valuable insights on how Muslim women can play a crucial role in deradicalization.

This article presents a preliminary set of empirical findings and observations on the current status of Central Asian fighters in Syria and Iraq, with a specific focus on the question of where and how they might be leaving the battlefield after concluding their active fighting roles. Drawing on data collected exclusively from local online sources as well as regional events covering the subject, the article develops common profiles of the known contingent and identifies overall patterns in their movements. In order to help with analysis, the entire contingent is grouped into four distinct categories, or the 4 “Rs”: “Remainers”, “Repatriates”, “Returnees”, and “Relocators”. This typological framework allows a closer study of the characteristics as well as the impact of each category, which could also be employed when looking at other FTF cohorts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Book review of Transnational return and social change: hierarchies, identities and ideas (London: Anthem Press, 2019) by Remus Gabriel Anghel, Margit Fauser & Paolo Boccagni.

Educated and talented people drive progress in every country. That’s why no country can neglect these people; that would mean losing one’s own potential. This paper emphasises the importance of educating scholarship students abroad as a means of developing and accumulating human resources and a key determinant of sustainable development in the modern world. Investing in the education of the best students (scholarship holders) is an investment in the future, which brings multiple benefits on a social, economic, and political level. Migration is an important phenomenon that attracts public attention, especially when it comes to highly educated experts leaving their home country in search of better education. Highly educated experts have been leaving Serbia for several decades, which poses an obvious problem for local society. The topic of permanent migration is dominant both in foreign and domestic literature, but studies on the temporary migration of highly educated students (scholarship holders) is almost nonexistent. The aim of this paper is to point out the value of returnee scholarship holders and the importance of creating the appropriate conditions for them to stay in the country. A survey conducted on a group of 96 returnee scholarship holders identified factors that affect their satisfaction with living in Serbia. The survey involved experts from Serbia who were educated abroad as scholarship holders, where they acquired academic titles and are now employed: as faculty teachers (32); as researchers at scientific institutes (24); in the private sector (21); at universities (12); in state administrative departments (5); and in medical institutions (2). The criterion for selecting this group of respondents was that they had stayed abroad as scholarship holders, whether they used scholarships from domestic (24) or foreign (72) funds. Scholarship students go abroad mostly because of their personal aspirations for training, gaining new experiences, and because of the inability to study the desired discipline in their country, as was the case for 74 respondents. The main reasons for deciding to return are family (25) and the belief that they have a good chance to work in Serbia (18), while 16 respondents could not stay abroad. In this paper, we used the factor analysis method. The main factors that create satisfaction with life in Serbia are isolated. These factors are: satisfaction with work and a set of factors that strongly correlate with it (the ability to make decisions, the implementation of acquired knowledge, peer acceptance), as well as the recognition of their diploma in Serbia without any difficulties. By improving these factors, there might be a significant increase in the chance that returnee scholarship holders remain in Serbia for a long time. Based on this, it would be wise to build a strategy on how to encourage returnee scholarship holders to stay in the country. The results obtained in this study represent a contribution to a search for a strategy that will attract, involve, and retain educated people in the country. [Project of the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, Grant no. TR 35030]

Abstract Background Human trafficking was affecting a number of individuals in Ethiopia that resulted in various health problems and human right violations. Though the pushing and pulling factors of human trafficking were identified qualitatively, their effect on trafficking status were not measured quantitatively; the magnitude of human trafficking among returnees was not also quantified. Methods Primary data were collected from 1342 Ethiopian returning migrants from abroad via Metemma-Yohannes, Moyale, and Galafi border towns from May to October 2016 consecutively. The status of each returnee as trafficked or non-trafficked was determined based on the UN 2000 definition of human trafficking. Factor analyses were conducted on the push and pull factors of migration to identify the underlying constructs. Considering the common underlying concept of items that load on the push and pull factors, the newly emerged construct variables were named in consultation with sociologists before used as independent variables. Finally, the effect of these and other variables on trafficking status were measured using generalized estimation equation. Result The magnitude of human trafficking among returning migrants was estimated at 50.89% (95%CI: 0.4822–0.5357). The odds of being trafficked was positively associated with female sex (AOR = 1.55, 95%CI: 1.10–2.17), low household wealth quintile (AOR = 2.55, 95%CI: 1.46–4.44), being smuggled at departure (AOR = 4.48, 95%CI: 3.19–6.29), strong desire for successful oversea life (AOR = 3.98, 95%CI: 2.63–6.02), high level of risk-opportunity imbalance before departure (AOR = 6.10, 95%CI: 4.01–9.30), and strong feeling of hopelessness at success in home-country (AOR = 8.64, 95%CI: 5.62–13.30). Conclusion Half of the returned Ethiopian migrants were trafficked. Sex, household wealth quintile, smuggling status, exposure to seductive information about oversea life, risk-opportunity imbalance before departure, and feeling hopelessness for success at home were among the factors associated with human trafficking.

Since the Syrian civil war erupted in 2011, an increasing number of European youth have joined Salafi-jihadist milieus in their home countries and/or in the Syrian/Iraqi conflict zone. Some are ardent believers in ending their days as—what they perceive to be—martyrs. Others renege on their commitment, return, and resocialize into conventional society. While engagement, disengagement, and resocialization have each been explored as phases separately within the existing literature, a coherent, criminological study of how those sequences are interconnected has still not been explored in a Danish context from an empirical angle. On the basis of qualitative interviews with three Danish Salafi-jihadist defectors (for example, from the Islamic State), this article unravels the connection and disconnection between engagement, disengagement, and resocialization. The analysis is theoretically informed by David Matza’s theory of drift (1964). However, the theory does have its limitations. As the commitment to Salafi-jihadism entails more than simply an “episodic release from moral constraint”, which defines drift, the informants are only part-time drifters, and here it is argued that the informants are rather entering and exiting a spiraling vortex of Salafi-jihadism. These entries and exits are fueled by the returnees’ nurtured and fractured fantasies.

Since the loss of approximately 98% of their territory, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) has become a shadow of its former self. Foreign recruits must now decide whether to leave the region and return home or stay and possibly continue the fight. Those that return constitute a threat to their home environments because of their maintained allegiances to ISIS, state of radicalization, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and improved lethality, and operational effectiveness in conducting acts of domestic terrorism. As a result, this article calls for the development and application of a prosecutorial-reintegrative model that is based off prior research on Foreign Terrorist Fighters (FTFs). The model should also be informed by up-to-date research in the field of deradicalization and disengagement and should consider the different classes of FTFs. Following an understanding of the qualitative differences of ISIS FTFs compared to past foreign fighters, the article concludes that directed counter violent extremist messaging and components of Saudi Arabia’s successful Prevention, Rehabilitation, and After Care (PRAC) program must be factored into any framework for rehabilitation and reintegration while Criminal Code and Anti-Terrorism Act provisions, complemented by evidence gathering strategies, are primarily used to hold FTFs accountable for serious offences. Received: 2021-04-05 Revised: 2021-04-24

The return of foreign fighters and their families to the European Union has mostly been considered a security threat by member States, which consequently adopt repressive measures aimed at providing an immediate, short-term response to this perceived threat. In addition to this strong-arm approach, reintegration strategies have also been used to prevent returnees from falling back into terrorism and to break down barriers of hostility between citizens in the long term. Amidst these different strategies, this paper seeks to identify which methods are most desirable for handling returnees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the experience narrated by young migrant returnees and deportees from the United States, settled in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico. Based on their experience, we discuss the explanatory limits of the perspectives of transnationalism and return migration. The cases analyzed allow us to determine that when migrating from North to South, young people undergo an adaptation process supported by family networks that nonetheless constitute a double-edged sword: while facilitating their integration in Mexico, family members also provide their first encounter with discrimination, which they will later experience in other contexts. Although initially, young people forced to return find themselves caged in by these intangible resources, they also overcome them by expanding their identity repertoires and reconstructing their sense of belonging to Mexico. This work seeks to highlight the need to develop a research agenda focused on young migrants, to whom it is difficult to extrapolate existing analytical perspectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Stanovništvo is the property of Demographic Research Center of Institute of Social Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Introduction: In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, the reintegration of Chinese international student returnees intersects with China's critical effort to combat a significant brain drain of highly skilled talents, highlighting an unprecedented psychological battleground. This convergence underscores the urgent need for nuanced research to navigate the uncharted territory of their mental health., Methods: Employing Bayesian analysis supported by Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithms, this study examined depression prevalence and associated factors among 1,014 Chinese returnees. The sample comprised 44.87% male participants (455), 51.58% female participants (523), and 3.55% identifying as "Others" (36), with an age distribution of 61.74% aged 18-30 (626), 28.80% aged 31-40 (292), and 9.47% aged 41-50 (96). The mean age of participants was 29.6 years, ranging from 18 to 50 years. PHQ-9 diagnoses revealed alarming levels of depression, with 47.9% exhibiting a moderately severe degree of depressive disorder., Results: Our findings highlight the intricate interplay between identity clusters- "homestayers" (those leaning towards a Chinese cultural identity), "navigators" (those with a bicultural identity), and "wayfarers" (those leaning towards a foreign cultural identity)-and the likelihood of depression. Specifically, homestayers showed a clear and strong negative association, navigators demonstrated a positive association, and wayfarers had a positive yet unclear correlation with depression levels. Furthermore, acculturation, age, and gender showed no significant effects, whereas education mildly mitigated depression., Discussion: Based on these findings, we suggest the implementation of better-tailored mental health support and policies to facilitate smoother reintegration., Competing Interests: XW was employed by the Suzhou Lunhua Education Group. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Jin, Wei, Wang and Le.)

The anthropogeographical development of the settlement in the area of Sućeskaa was similar to the corresponding development in other settlements of the municipality of Srebrenica and under the influence of general socio-economic and political circumstances that marked the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the municipality of Srebrenica in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Certain socio-geographical features of the development of the Sućeska region can be traced through statistical data obtained by the official censuses of the B&H population from 1879 to 1991 and 2013 respectively. Changes in the overall population movement and changes in the biological, economic and educational structure of the population were carried out in accordance with appropriate processes in the Srebrenica municipality. Significant changes in the economic and educational structure of the population have occurred in the last two decades of the 20th century. However, the normal demographic development of Sućeske's area was interrupted by brutal aggression against an independent state of Bosnia and Herzegovina and a genocide in which a large number of Bosniaks from this region were killed. Almost 25 years after the Dayton Peace Agreement in the Sućeska region, about 20% of the total number of pre-war people live, and these are mostly older women, while the rest of Sucescani is displaced in the municipalities of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the world.

Abstract Background Mental health problems among trafficked persons could be the result of concomitantly interwoven effects of various factors. Analyzing the networked relationships concurrently could be a more substantive approach to better understand the role of risk factors in this population. This study aimed to assess the magnitude of mental health symptoms as well as the association among socio-demographic, trafficking related exposure variables, and mental health problems of Ethiopian returnees from trafficking. Methods A sample of 1387 returnees who were trafficked via three major human trafficking corridors of Ethiopia were selected consecutively. Data related to socio-economic, trafficking exposure variables, and symptoms of mental illness were collected in personal interviews. Anxiety was measured with a brief measure for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD-7), depression with a patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9), and PTSD with post-traumatic checklist (PCL-C). Generalized structural equation modeling was employed to estimate the relationships among exogenous, mediating, and endogenous variables simultaneously. Results The prevalence of symptoms of anxiety was estimated at 51.9% (95% CI 49.3–54.6%); PTSD was estimated at 34.5% (95% CI 32.1–37.1%) and depression at 58.3% (95% CI 55.6–60.9%). Restricted freedom of movement had a direct positive effect on anxiety (β = 1.24, 95% CI 0.97–1.51), depression (β = 0.94, 95% CI 0.71–1.17) and PTSD (13.00, 95% CI 11.23–14.77). Violence experienced during the trafficking period was a mediator variable and significantly associated with anxiety (β = 0.46; 95% CI 0.26–0.66) and PTSD (β = 4.00; 95% CI 2.06–5.94). History of detention had a positive total effect on GAD (total β = 1.380, 95% CI 1.074–1.687) and PTSD (total β = 15.63, 95% CI 13.708–17.545), and direct positive effect on depression (β = 0.89, 95% CI 0.65–1.13). Conclusion Ethiopian trafficked persons were highly likely to return with increased levels of mental health symptoms, namely anxiety, depression, and PTSD. Socio-economic and trafficking related exposures mediated by violence were factors affecting mental health symptoms. Thus, in addition to economic re-integrations of victims, strategies should be designed and implemented to address the prevalent mental health problems.

Russia and the European Union are both concerned with the return of "foreign terrorist fighters" (FTF) from the conflict zone, who prepare and carry out terrorist attacks, create "sleeping cells" and engage in propaganda and recruitment of young people. The author believes that the FTF phenomenon should not be underestimated, even though they have not committed major terrorist attacks in recent years. In this context, the need to intensify the exchange of information between Russia and the EU, despite the sanctions regime, is growing

This paper deals with our highly educated professionals who studied abroad as scholarship holders at post-academic studies and then returned and found employment in Serbia. The aim of this paper is to examine how this group of returnees employed at faculties and scientific institutes in Serbia assess their experience of studying abroad. The assessments of the returnees were gathered through a questionnaire. These assessments were on the extent to which the returnees felt their education abroad influenced their employment in Serbia, the opportunities to apply the acquired knowledge and to participate in decision-making at the workplace, and, finally, on how different they felt from their colleagues who acquired all their education and work experience in their own country. To better understand the situation of returnees, a special questionnaire also gathered the assessments of their colleagues on these issues.

Background Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was found to be the causative microorganism of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which started to spread in Wuhan, China. This study was to evaluate the effectiveness of questionnaire, symptoms-based screening, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) screening of returnees from COVID-19-endemic areas on a chartered flight, to examine the proportion of infected persons and the proportion of asymptomatic persons among infected persons who returned from Wuhan. Methods A retrospective cohort study was done in 7 tertiary medical institutions in Japan. A total of 566 Japanese who returned from Wuhan participated in the study. Results Overall, 11 of the 566 passengers had a positive SARS-CoV-2 PCR result for pharyngeal swabs and 6 were asymptomatic. Only fever differed between SARS-CoV-2-positive and -negative individuals (P <.043). Six of the 11 PCR-positive individuals were asymptomatic; 4 remained positive on day 10, and 1 asymptomatic person tested positive up to day 27. Two of the 11 were negative on the first PCR test and positive on the second. Conclusions Our results will be important insights on screening returnees from locked-down cities, as well as providing important data on the proportion of asymptomatic individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2. A 13-day observation period and a second round of PCR may be effective to screen patients, including asymptomatic infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Migraciones is the property of Universidad Pontificia Comillas, Instituto Universitario de Estudios sobre Migraciones and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article draws on qualitative interview data with 42 New Zealanders returning to New Zealand after living overseas, finding they feel more like a 'migrant' than someone coming 'home'. This is in part because New Zealand people and institutions demonstrate an intolerance to difference, theorised here as a form of xenophobia that inhibits the economic, social and political integration of participants. However, the same experiences and ideas that lead many New Zealanders to frame returnees as an 'out-group' can be regarded as a national resource. The article concludes that we should embrace – not ignore or disparage – returnees' awareness of integration issues, transnational networks and cross-cultural experiences as we attempt to maintain social cohesion in an increasingly superdiverse world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ROMANIAN MIGRANTS HAVE ENGAGED SINCE 2007 ON MIGRATION TRAJECTORIES WITH A VERY CLEAR ROAD MAP, AS A RESULT OF BETTER REGULATION, NETWORKS AND ALSO BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE WEST. IN THE PAST YEARS THE NUMBER OF ROMANIANS RETURNING HAS INCREASED, HIGHLIGHTING A NEW EVOLUTION THAT OF REEVALUATING THE OPPORTUNITIES ROMANIA HAS TO OFFER IN TERMS OF PROFESSION AND SOCIAL LIFE. IN DECIDING WHETHER RETURNING IS THE GOOD OPTION, MIGRANTS TAKE INTO ACCOUNT A WIDE RANGE OF MOTIVES. OUR RESEARCH FOCUSES ON THE PERCEPTION MIGRANTS HAVE ON THEIR PROSPECTIVE PROFESSIONAL OPPORTUNITIES, ESPECIALLY IN THE BUSINESS SECTOR SHOULD THEY DECIDE TO BECOME RETURNEES. THE QUESTIONS WE SEEK TO ANSWER ARE THE FOLLOWING: DO ROMANIAN MIGRANTS THINK THE SKILLS AND COMPETENCES THEY HAVE ACQUIRED DURING THEIR STAY ABROAD COULD INCREASE THEIR CHANCES OF BEING SUCCESSFUL IN THE ROMANIAN BUSINESS SECTOR? WHAT WOULD BE A FINAL MOTIVATION TO RETURN AND START AN ENTREPRENEURIAL EXPERIENCE? MY RESEARCH IS BASED ON QUALITATIVE SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS WITH 10 ROMANIANS WHO EITHER HAVE DECIDED TO RETURN TO ROMANIA OR ARE IN THE PROCESS OF TAKING A DECISION. THE INTERVIEWS WERE CONDUCTED FACE TO FACE OR THROUGH ONLINE MEETINGS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study attempted to develop a happiness index tool for evaluating rehabilitation initiatives used to reinstate returnees at district Swat, Pakistan. The Happiness Index (HI) tool compares two periods, i.e., HI before rehabilitation (BR) and HI after rehabilitation (AR). The returnees’ happiness index (RHI) is also compared with Pakistan’s Happiness Index to identify the difference. Data for this study were elicited from 382 respondents through a structured survey questionnaire. The results show that after rehabilitation (AR), the returnees’ happiness index improved from 3.89 to 5.36, which is still less than the world happiness index of Pakistan, i.e., 5.65 in 2019. This study concluded that rehabilitation projects had a significantly positive impact on the HI of the returnees. However, more effective and sustainable initiatives are required to align the RHI to the HI of Pakistan. Further, the RHI tool adopted by this study is significant for measuring the happiness of the marginalized and affected people in Pakistan and beyond.