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The purpose of this study was to examine how well a set of 12 character strengths (Leadership, Integrity, Open-Mindedness, Bravery, Teamwork, Persistence, Social Intelligence, Love of Learning, Fairness, Self-Regulation, Perspective and Creativity) will predict academic performance (AP) and military performance (MP), compared to high school grade point average (GPA) and general mental ability (GMA). The study sample comprised 123 army cadets of two cohorts from the three-year bachelor's degree programme at the Norwegian Military Academy (NMA). GPA predicted AP (r = 0.32, p ≤ 0.05), but not MP (r = 0.14, n.s.), while GMA correlated significantly with neither AP nor MP. All 12 character strengths correlated significantly with MP (rs ranging from 0.27 to 0.65), and all except for Fairness correlated significantly with AP (rs ranging from 0.18 to 0.58). An average score of the 12 character strengths showed incremental validity beyond GMA and GPA in predicting both AP and MP. Our results suggest that character strengths should be considered when selecting and training army cadets.

Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated and facilitated the introduction of telework in organizations. This has also impacted the workers’ relationship between work and private life. The aim of the current study was to examine the links between resilience and mode of work (stationary vs. remote) and the work–home and home–work relationships, and whether they are mediated by passion for work and strategies of coping with stress. The study was carried out on a sample of 1251 participants from Great Britain, India, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and Vietnam. The following measures were used: The Survey Work–Home Interaction, The Brief Resilience Coping Scale, The Passion Scale, and the Brief COPE. Results showed that the more stationary the mode of work, the lower the intensity of the negative influence of personal life on work. Resilience was revealed to have a positive effect on worker functioning. The study also showed a relationship between education and gender and passion for work. Finally, the importance of furthering the knowledge on the home–work and work–home relationships among teleworkers is discussed.

The current study on the intention to leave the organization among nurses and midwives aligns with the broader direction of research on the consequences of demanding jobs. This is particularly important in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in 2020 and is ongoing. The aim of the current study was to identify the levels of intention to leave the organization and job satisfaction in a sample of 390 Polish nurses and midwives. A multiple stepwise linear regression was carried out to establish which variables are predictors of job satisfaction and intention to leave the organization. The following measures were used in the study: Nurses’ Occupational Stressor Scale, The Brief Resilience Coping Scale, The Turnover Intention Scale, The Job Satisfaction Scale, and an occupational questionnaire (number of workplaces, weekly number of evening and night shifts, working at a unit dedicated to treating COVID-19, working as a supervisor/executive). The current study showed that almost 25% of the sample reported high turnover intention, and a similar proportion reported low job satisfaction. Resilience was related to nurses’ job satisfaction. In the predictive models for job satisfaction, the organizational factor of the number of workplaces was significant (positively related), while job experience was a negative predictor of intention to leave. The practical implications of the results and the need to continue research on this topic are also discussed.

Trait self-control is important for well-being and mental and physical health. Most extant measures of self-control are limited in that they do not account for the multidimensionality and specificity of the trait. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a multidimensional and hierarchical scale of self-control in a full and a short version. The development of the Multidimensional Self-Control Scale (MSCS) and the Brief Multidimensional Self-Control Scale (BMSCS) was based on focus groups, a pilot, a main, and a validation sample (total N = 2,409). The 29-item MSCS consists of 6 first-order factors (Procrastination, Attentional Control, Impulse Control, Emotional Control, Goal Orientation, and Self-Control Strategies), 2 second-order factors (Inhibition and Initiation), and a third-order self-control factor. The 8 items in BMSCS provides a general trait self-control score. Findings from exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported the structures across samples, and internal consistency was acceptable. Assessment for acquiescence and sex differences indicated no major impacts on the scales. Strong convergent validity was observed with the Self-Control Scale (SCS) and the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS), as well as to other similar concepts. The MSCS subscales discriminated well between each other. Assessment of incremental validity of the MSCS over SCS, when controlling for sex and personality, showed significant increases in explained variance when predicting habits, hardiness, and life satisfaction. Similar significant results were observed for the BMSCS over the BSCS. Overall, results indicate that the new scales are useful measures that integrate recent theoretical and empirical findings of trait self-control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

BackgroundAn increasing number of migrants in almost all culturally homogeneous countries poses a significant societal challenge. The current research aims to explore the relationship of personality traits, self-esteem, and emotional intelligence with cultural intelli-gence.Participants and procedureFive studies were carried out using the Cultural Intelligence Scale (CSQ) together with additional measures. In Study 1 (N = 145), participants from Slovakia (n = 74) and Poland (n = 71) completed the CSQ and the Mini International Personality Item Pool Scales. In Study 2 (N = 138) and 3 (N = 129), the participants completed the CSQ and selected subscales from the Interna-tional Personality Item Pool – 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire. The CSQ and the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire were used in Study 4 (N = 74); and the CSQ and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale were used in Study 5 (N = 91).ResultsCultural intelligence was most strongly related to extraversion in the Slovak sample and with intellect in the Polish sample. A relationship of gregariousness, friendliness, and sensitivity, but not warmth, distrust, and reserve with the individual factors of cultural intelligence was also observed in the Polish sample. Emotional intelligence was related to the metacognitive, motivation-al, and behavioral factors of cultural intelligence, while self-esteem was related only to the motivational factor.ConclusionsPersonality traits are invariably related to individual factors of cultural intelligence. These relations assume varying patterns in Polish and Slovak individuals. Some factors of cultural intelligence are related to emotional intelligence and self-esteem. No differences were found in terms of cultural intelligence between cadets and civil students.

Under circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic, decompression is essential to slowly overcome the lockdown stressors as a transition period between lockdown and resuming work in a manner that is no longer going to be ‘business as usual’. Firstly, we examine what is decompression in the context of reducing overwhelming and unwanted pressure emanating from the pandemic. Secondly, we reiterate the objectives and goals of decompression. Thirdly, we list ways in which one can decompress as a suitable way of endowing us with better psychological and much needed emotional support in pandemic times. Finally, the chapter offers guidelines for future research as this aspect has not been researched much and opens up new avenues in the field of psychosocial research in civilian as well as military contexts which brings the need for psychological debriefing to the forefront. The results of psychological disaster research to foresee, reduce and soothe the psychological effects of mass disasters – in this case, the global COVID-19 pandemic, maybe reconstructive.

This qualitative study focuses on the participant’s perception of Norwegian police tactics and maintenance training (IP4 training). The aim was to investigate to what extent there was a relationship between training participation and perceived levels of learning and utility. The study reports on data collected from six focus-group interviews with 31 exercise participants (N=31). The participants were all Norwegian police officers taking part in an advanced emergency response (IP3) qualifying training course during the fall of 2019. Key findings indicated that the participants experienced perceived learning and utility but that the outcomes were not deemed optimal. This study shows that a greater focus on variation and constructive alignment during training may improve perceived learning and utility levels. Further, we see a value in suggesting an increase in the amount of yearly training. More training would contribute to better maintenance of basic knowledge, which again could allow the instructors to focus more on progressive development and learning.

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has affected numerous aspects of human functioning. Social contacts, work, education, travel, and sports have drastically changed during the lockdown periods. The pandemic restrictions have severely limited professional athletes’ ability to train and participate in competitions. For many who rely on sports as their main source of income, this represents a source of intense stress. To assess the dynamics of perceived stress as well as coping strategies during different waves of the COVID-19 pandemic, we carried out a longitudinal study using the Perception of Stress Questionnaire and the Brief COPE on a sample of 2020 professional athletes in Poland, Romania, and Slovakia. The results revealed that in all three countries, the highest intrapsychic stress levels were reported during the fourth wave (all, p < 0.01) and the highest external stress levels were reported before the pandemic (p < 0.05). To analyze the data, analyses of variance were carried out using Tukey’s post hoc test and η2 for effect size. Further, emotional tension was the highest among Polish and Slovak athletes in the fourth wave, while the highest among Romanian athletes was in the pre-pandemic period. The coping strategies used by the athletes in the fourth wave were more dysfunctional than during the first wave (independent t test and Cohen’s d were used). The dynamics of the coping strategies—emotion focused and problem focused—were also discussed among Polish, Romanian, and Slovak athletes. Coaches and sports psychologists can modify the athletes’ perceived stress while simultaneously promoting effective coping strategies.

This research paper investigates the meaning of role models in higher education. As a case, the Norwegian Military Academy (NMA), which educates military officers for the Norwegian army, is used. Particularly investigated is how role models can be seen as resources in the “learning landscape” surrounding the army officer cadets through their 3 years of learning and Bildung processes. Data used in this work stem from an ethnographic fieldwork following a class of cadets at the NMA through their practical training, off-campus. Officer cadets in interviews report both intentional and unintentional use of role models as a resource in their learning landscapes. By critical educational interpretation of this ongoing practice, using the frame of Wolfgang Klafkis Bildungstheory and “the perfect action principle”, the relationships between this practice and the NMA’s own Bildungideals are questioned. Role models are at the NMA linked to their own leaders, culture and practice. This narrows what is valid practice and can enforce a self-driven power structure and a one-dimensional understanding of how leadership should be performed, where only people within this culture can be seen as participants. We argue that the risks of this NMA practice are related to organisational narcissism and a possible distorted reality orientation, where the NMA fails it’s given educational tasks related to the need of the society and future demands of war.

IntroductionParamedics play a vital role in the healthcare system by providing professional support in situations of direct threat to patient health and life. They experience numerous difficulties during their work, which result in occupational stress. During the COVID-19 pandemic, their work has become even more demanding. The aim of the current study was to examine the role of resilience in the subjective experience of stress among paramedics during the COVID-19 pandemic.Materials and methodsThe study was carried out in two phases, in October-November 2019 (N = 75) and in May-June 2020 (N = 84), using the Sense of Stress Questionnaire (Skala Poczucia Stresu) and the Resilience Scale (Skala Pomiaru Prężności).ResultsParamedics exhibited higher intrapsychic stress before the COVID-19 pandemic. Tolerance of failure and treating life as a challenge were higher during the pandemic, in contrast to optimism and the ability to mobilize in difficult situations. Paramedics who were in contact with patients with COVID-19 experienced higher stress. Perseverance and determination, openness to new experiences and sense of humor, as well as competences and tolerance of negative emotions were revealed to play a key part in mitigating subjectively experienced stress.ConclusionParamedics’ subjectively experienced stress was lower during the COVID-19 pandemic. Paramedics who were in direct contact with patients with COVID-19 experienced higher stress. They had sufficient psychological resources, in the form of resilience (perseverance and determination, openness to new experiences, sense of humor, and competences and tolerance of negative emotions), which allowed them to cope with the situation of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The impact of organizational support and organizational justice on work engagement was investigated in a group of police officers. A review of the literature revealed that studies reporting differences between the influence of supervisors and coworker justice and support on work engagement among police officers are grossly insufficient. This study hypothesized that organizational support and organizational justice would positively predict work engagement among police officers. It was also hypothesized that, among police officers, supervisor support is more strongly related to work engagement than coworker support and that supervisor justice is more strongly linked to work engagement than coworker justice. Participants were 170 police officers who worked in police departments in northern Poland. A regression analysis showed that supervisor support and supervisor justice had a positive effect on police officers’ work engagement, whereby organizational support coupled with organizational justice accounted for 26% of the variability of work engagement. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed, and directions for future research are suggested.

This study is the first to report on Big Five personality traits of employees in the Norwegian military Special Operations Forces (NORSOF). Three research questions were formulated for this study, aiming to investigate (1) whether age, number of combat-deployments and rank (OR/OF) had an impact on the personalities of NORSOF employees, (2) possible personality differences between personnel organized in the underlying departments of the NORSOF, and (3) if there were personality differences between SOF-operators and conventional forces applicants. SOF-operators from the Norwegian Special Operations Commando (FSK) and the Norwegian Naval Special Operations Commando (MJK) constituted 40% of the total NORSOF sample (N = 190), whilst the term SOF-support categorized the larger proportion of non-operators. Results indicated that younger employees tended to be lower on emotional stability than older colleagues, and that those without any combat-deployments were somewhat higher on agreeableness and a bit lower on emotional stability relative to employees with such experience. Additionally, personnel with officer ranks (OF) were higher on extraversion compared to specialists (OR). Results did not show any significant intradepartmental differences in mean personality trait scores. Compared to male applicants for basic officer training in conventional forces (N = 662), SOF-operators (all males) were less extroverted, less agreeable, and slightly more emotionally stable. The authors conclude that the NORSOF attracts and recruits personnel with similarities in their Big Five personalities. Furthermore, we suggest that the personality profile that emerged for the “average” Norwegian SOF-operator is a functional one, especially when considering the desired future image of the Special Forces operative as a Warrior-Diplomat.

This paper investigates how border-breaking experiences among officer cadets can contribute to the development of character. The object of investigation is the “Combat Fatigue” course and the reported reflections and outputs about this in extremis learning experience. The findings are analyzed using the theoretical concepts of hardiness, willpower, and resilience. These concepts suggest that a warrior’s leadership ethos is related to the mind at the cost of the body, and that team spirit is fostered in harsh conditions. Hallucinations are reported during the training by the cadets as being valuable to their future leadership, because they can represent border-breaking experiences, strengthening their belief of mastery in harsh leadership environments.

This study investigated the moderating role of intrinsic motivation for military studies on the relationship between academic self-efficacy and change in perceived military competence. We present two concurrent hypotheses based on theoretical interaction effects of intrinsic motivation. Data from 245 cadets from three military academies revealed a positive relationship between self-efficacy and an increase in perceived military competence only for cadets with lower levels of intrinsic motivation. This suggests that, with lower intrinsic motivation, beliefs about one’s capabilities to organize and take courses of action to attain certain goals may make a crucial difference in cadets’ compliance to exert effort to increase their military competence. In contrast, self-efficacy seems less important for increased perception of military competence in cadets with higher intrinsic motivation. These cadets probably increase their military competence mainly as a result of the pleasure they gain when engaging in educational activities. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Purpose of study: Officers serving in international operations are currently facing increasingly more complex and difficult operational environments. In order to solve different missions and tasks in these challenging environments, they need to acquire a high degree of leadership proficiencies. Officers in the Norwegian army develop these leadership proficiencies during a three year educational program at the Norwegian Military Academy. A new concept of leadership development referred to as officer development has been implemented at the Norwegian Military Academy. This was done in order to prepare the officers for the challenges they face in complex and difficult operational environments. The main idea of the new officer development concept is that working on developing a strong character will lead to the acquirement of officer competency. Character development is derived from proficiency in personal proficiency, social proficiency, and subject matter proficiency. Based upon these three proficiencies a strong character is assumed to be developed in each officer. This strong character will result in that an officer gains a high degree of officer competency. Officer competency is the ability to continue to solve a mission or a task even when it is difficult. The officer competency is thus considered the most important competency an officer must acquire in order to be able to solve different missions and tasks in complex and difficult operational environments.

Officers educated at the Norwegian Military Academy (NMA) should be able to lead under extreme conditions when they encounter situations that are unforeseen. The NMA's new concept of leadership development will help the officers lead others in difficult military operations. In this concept it is assumed that both character and intellect are significant factors contributing to military leadership. The officer development concept is visualized in the NMA's pyramid of competency. The pyramid of competency illustrates how officer competency can be understood as a function of self- proficiency, subject-matter proficiency, and social proficiency. The integrated composition of the pyramid shows the mutual interaction of the proficiencies and how they affect and underpin the pyramid's top element that constitutes officer competency. The NMA aims to develop the necessary character and intellect in each officer, and regards this as absolutely central features of the officer competency. Officer competency is intended to constitute the acting dimension of an officer facing the unforeseen as well as unknown and unknowable situations. The NMA has as its guideline qualities responsibility, robustness and willpower. However, several questions need to be addressed first,concerning what character means, how it is developed, and which personalities are amenable prone to develop and to demonstrate character. The NMA has therefore initiated a new research project that will look into character in military leaders. The project is intended to provide valuable knowledge about the abovementioned questions regarding character. The results from this project will be a significant contribution to both the selection and training of officers and to decide whether an officer has or can acquire the required qualities to be a military leader.

Purpose of study: The purpose of this paper was to investigate a multivariate statistical analysis method used in a scientific article. The article was written by Breckler (1984) and published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Sources of evidence: According to Breckler, affect, behavior, and cognition are three hypothetical, unobservable classes of responses to attitude, a so-called tripartite model. Breckler tested the validity of this tripartite model by using the software program LISREL V. In his two studies, Breckler found that the results indicated that affect, behavior, and cognition were distinguishable components of attitude. Main arguments: However, there are some considerations that Breckler should have taken into account in his article. The first is the fact that high intercomponent correlations do not necessarily follow from the tripartite view. These three components may operate partially or even completely independently. Besides, observed measures may assess primarily the cognitive component, leading to an inflated estimate of intercomponent consistencies. The second consideration is that the NFI fit index is a widely used Type 2 fit index, but it is currently not recommended because it is affected by sample size and does poorly for small samples. The third consideration is that Breckler should have performed an analysis using power analysis of covariance structures. Conclusion: One conclusion in this paper is that a better focus on power and sample size when using structural equation analysis is something that Breckler should have taken into consideration.

Problem statement: In modern military operations, soldiers and officers often face the risk of engaging the enemy in close combat or hand-to-hand combat. Since this type of fighting is considered very stressful, it is of importance to find a suitable and easy-to-learn hand-to-hand combat system that will enhance the soldiers and officers ability to function under stress. Purpose of study: The present study investigates whether participating in a one-day hand-to-hand combat course in the Israeli hand-to-hand system KravMaga would lead to a better perception and understanding of how to perform more efficiently under stressful situations. Method: Norwegian military officers (n=43) completed a questionnaire with questions related to hand-to-hand combat training. Participants were also asked about their knowledge about physical and mental reactions under stress. They were given the same questionnaire before and after taking part in the hand-to-hand combat course. Findings and results: Participants felt that the hand-to-hand combat training they had received better filled their need for functioning as effectively as possible in stressful situations, compared to before the course. Participants also indicated that they felt that their knowledge of hand-to-hand combat skills was better after having completed the course. Furthermore, the participants were found to have a stronger need to practice hand-to-hand combat training on a regular basis after the course compared to before the course. Participants also indicated that they felt that their level of hand-to-hand fighting skills was better after having completed the course. Furthermore, participants did not feel that it was more necessary to have knowledge about how people react physically and mentally in situations with stress after the course. However, participants felt that they had acquired more knowledge about how people react physically and mentally in stressful situations after the end of the course. Conclusions: The results from the present study suggest that KravMaga is a hand-to-hand combat system that quickly installs confidence in those who practice it.

Problem statement: Sometimes concurrent decisions are not integrated. Purpose of study: An experiment was conducted to investigate whether causally related options of concurrent decisions are not evaluated and therefore not chosen although their combinations are more attractive than single options. In two concurrent decisions participants chose between buying means-end related and unrelated pairs of everyday consumer products. Method: Sixteen undergraduates in one group were sometimes forced to choose the end (or the means), whereas 16 undergraduates in another group were always free to choose the end and means. Findings and results: In the forced choices, participants chose the means or ends presumably because they attended to the additional benefits. Conclusions: However, when free to make both choices participants only chose the ends and means 22% of the time. 28% of the choices were made of only an end or a means, and 50% of the choices were made of two unrelated options.

This study investigated the relationship between academic self-concept, academic self-efficacy and the self-reported acquirement of certain specific military skills and abilities. Our sample consisted of 141 military cadets from the Norwegian Military Academy (Army), the Royal Norwegian Naval Academy, and the Royal Norwegian Air Force Academy. Supporting our hypotheses, it was found that perceived academic self-concept related positively to self-efficacy, after controlling for initial levels of self-efficacy, and that self-efficacy relates positively to self-reported Individual Coping Capacity (ICC), Cooperation in Difficult Situations (CDS), and Motivation to Achievement (MA), this after controlling for the initial levels of these Military Skills and Abilities (MSA). We discuss the implications of these findings. The present study and the conducted research has been supported by the Norwegian Defense University College and the South-Eastern University in Norway.

Problem Statement: Having good relations between a leader and his or her colleagues are important in order to achieve results in any organization. Purpose of Study: To investigate the leadership style developmental leadership (DL) and any relationship with the factor results of leadership in DL. A second purpose was to investigate the relation between the factor results of leadership and the five personality factors in the personality test NEO PI-R. Methods 16 respondents working in a municipality in Norway filled out the personality test NEO PI-R. In addition the developmental leadership questionnaire (DLQ) was used in order to collect data on the respondents’ leadership. The respondents were also requested to send the DLQ to 6-10 supervisors/colleagues and subordinates in order to get objective feedback on their leadership behavior. The respondents were divided into a high and a low results group dependent upon their scores on the factor result of leadership in DL. Findings and Results No significant differences were found in the high results group between the respondents’ own score and their colleagues’ score on the different aspects of DL. Significant differences were, however, found in the low results group between the respondents’ and the colleagues’ score on the different aspects of DL. No significant differences existed between the two groups regarding the score on the five personality factors. Conclusions and Recommendations: A relationship seemed to exist between the leadership style DL and the factor results of leadership but not with any of the five personality factors.

Background The Norwegian Armed Forces is a part of the public management sector in Norway. As an organization and a community institution the Norwegian Armed Forces is responsible for governing large financial, material and human resources. Purpose of Study: To discuss efficiency promoting and efficiency restraining factors in the Norwegian Armed Forces. Sources of Evidence: We have chosen to discuss various efficiency promoting and restraining factors related to four parts of the Norwegian Armed Forces tasks, structure and resource assets. These four parts are the new model of governance, the budgeting and accounting process, the procurement policies, and the salary and career policy. Main Argument: By rationalizing these four parts the Norwegian Armed Forces follow the developments that are taking place within other public sectors in Norway. With the introduction of the model of governance an important step is taken in the direction of adaption to the market, although this market may be seen as a quasi-market. Conclusions The model of governance is efficiency promoting, but has a long way to go before it functions optimally. More efficiency promoting measures have been implemented in terms of the budget and accounting process. This has led to an increased insight into the ongoing processes and an increased degree of control. The implementation of a new procurement system is the most efficiency promoting factor in order to improve all aspects of the Norwegian Armed Forces procurements. However, the salary and career policy is perceived as too complicated and poorly communicated.

Problem Statement: Being self-aware about your preferred leadership behavior is important for a military officer. Equally important is getting feedback that indicates how others perceive your leadership behavior. Purpose of Study: To investigate the degree of self-awareness regarding military cadets’ leadership behaviour and how this was correlated with others perceptions of the same leadership behavior. Method: This study was an explorative and descriptive study. 26 cadets at the Norwegian Military Academy filled out the Developmental Leadership Questionnaire (DLQ) measuring their degree of developmental leadership, as well as their degree of transactional leadership and non-leadership. The cadets also had to send the same DLQ to 6-10 commanders, colleagues and subordinates in order to get feedback from them on their leadership behavior. Findings and Results: It was found that the cadets scored themselves lower on both developmental leadership and on the positive parts of transactional leadership and higher on both the negative parts of transactional leadership and on non-leadership as compared to their respondents. Conclusions and Recommendations: In the scores the cadets gave themselves they scored quite high on developmental leadership and on the positive sides of transactional leadership, and quite low on the negative sides of transactional leadership and on non-leadership; one may conclude that they have a high degree of self-awareness. This also indicates that they are developmental leaders although they may not see this as clearly as their respondents do.

Purpose of study: This paper examines the reactions exhibited by a Norwegian officer after having participated in a military operation abroad. Problem statement: The officer was clearly affected by both parallel and analog stressors both before and during his tour abroad. Sources of Evidence: When the officer returned home he revealed an over-determined reaction while being a passenger in a car. The officer clearly lacked an ability to process the accumulated stress that had been built up during many years, both in civilian life and as a result of taking part in several military operations abroad. His over-determined reaction may have been caused by a lack of mental preparation before and during his last mission as well as a lack of coping skills. Main Argument: This may have allowed the residual from different previous experiences and experiences from his latest mission to build up until his reaction became over-determined. Another possible explanation is that the officer did not have time to try to cope with the things that happened during his mission abroad. Conclusion: Although not much happened to the officer during his last mission abroad, he had a lot of fantasies and strong feelings attached to the mission after returning home. After a few weeks at home these fantasies and feelings slowly disappeared and the officer returned to a normal life.

Problem Statement: Leading in the military is a challenging task. Purpose of Study: This paper examines possible correlations between creativity and the factor inspiration and motivation in the leadership style Developmental Leadership (DL). Hypothesis 1 stated that respondents who score high on the factor inspiration and motivation in DL were expected to have moderate to high scores on social boldness, perfectionism, abstractedness, dominance, and openness to change, and low scores on sensitivity and warmth. Hypothesis 2 stated that respondents who score high on the factor inspiration and motivation in DL were expected to have moderate to high scores on the primary factors openness to change, reasoning, rule-consciousness, social boldness, and abstractedness, and low scores on sensitivity and warmth. Methods A personality test known as 16PF was used in order to measure the personality traits of 16 cadets at the Norwegian Military Academy. Furthermore, the developmental leadership questionnaire (DLQ) was used in order to investigate the frequency of the DL style among the cadets. Findings and Results Our results showed that our two hypotheses did not receive any or very little support. One possible explanation for the lack of confirmation of our hypotheses could possibly be that the two used tools, i.e. the DLQ and 16PF concentrate on different things. Conclusions and Recommendations Some of the results are quite surprising. This may be explained by the sample size, so therefore it is important to conduct studies of larger groups in order to get more conclusive answers.

Strategic Competence Leadership (SCL) is a tool meant to ensure that the Norwegian Armed Forces Cyber Defence (NAFCD) has the necessary expertise to cope with current and future unforeseen events. This is necessary in order to develop a better digital border defense against digital threats from different state or non-state actors. Unforeseen cyber incidents include for instance “zero-days” attacks and similar severe threats. The goal of the SCL in the NAFCD is the development of a reliable “Cyber Resilience.” In the present study, we examine how the concept of SCL is understood and carried out on the different leadership and managerial levels in the NAFCD. Our research problem was how well prepared the NAFCD is for SCL and competence development for future competence needs, especially in relation to unforeseen events? Semi-structured interviews and document analyses of governance documents were used in the present study. The Strategic Didactic Model for the Unforeseen was used to construct nine research questions that were then given to the participants. The nine questions were sorted under three categories: organizational structures, competence development and needs, and plans, handling and communication. Fourteen leaders at different levels in the NAFCD participated in the study. Our main finding was that high-level (n = 4) and low-level (n = 10) participants differed in their views on SCL. As for unforeseen events, both levels shared the opinion that the NAFCD can cope with a low level of didactical degrees of the unforeseen (the degree to which the management has the competence to facilitate for adequate exercises for the different hierarchical levels in the organization, i.e., sudden unknown cyber-attacks). However, no common understanding of the term SCL was found among the participants. Interaction was interpreted to be very important to the participants, and they used professional networks to a high degree. In addition, unofficial lines of communication were very frequently used in relation to human resource exchange and development. By creating a common understanding within the NAFCD regarding the concept of SCL, it will be possible to improve the Norwegian digital border defense against unforeseen events.

The Norwegian Armed Forces is taking part in military joint operations on an international basis. When planning and executing military joint operations, a knowledge management strategy known as center of gravity analysis is often used. Given the constant need to improve the processes involved in planning and executing military joint operations, the use of an alternative knowledge management strategy is proposed and discussed in this article. The alternative knowledge management strategy is referred to as effects-based thinking. Effects-based thinking can be said to be a more general method than the center of gravity analysis. For a professional community of practice such as the Norwegian Armed Forces, the use of effects-based thinking may simply be a more suitable knowledge management strategy.

A Joint Force Commander (JFC) leading military joint operations faces several complex challenges. The purpose of this article is to investigate some of the challenges a Joint Force Commander may face when a conflict changes character from being a high-intensity conflict to becoming a low-intensity conflict. Sources of evidence: In connection with command and control, especially issues concerning different cultures and the understanding of this can be the biggest challenge for a Joint Force Commander during the transition to a low intensity conflict as a peace support operation setting. Main argument: Being able to anticipate some of these problems will be essential to a Joint Force Commander's ability to exercise leadership and command and control. Conclusions: Furthermore, target selection and information operations have proven to be two factors that will have a greater importance in the planning and conduct of operations during a transition from a high-intensity conflict to a low-intensity conflict.

Artikkelen drøfter hvordan kontekst påvirker kadettenes opplevelse av læringsprosesser. To læringssituasjoner er undersøkt; kryssingen av Hardangervidda om vinteren og trening på skytebanen. Analysen tar utgangspunkt i etnografiske data som feltnotater, intervjuer og et spørreskjema. Kadettene rapporterer slit, men mestring under kryssingen av vidda. I en situasjon med rangering etter dyktighet knyttet til tid brukt og antall treff, er det noen kadetter som rapporterer generelt mismot. De to læringssituasjonene blir drøftet i lys av mestrings- og målorienteringsteori, men også med perspektiver fra læringsteorien. En implikasjon er at gruppeorientert læring kan gi et mestringsorientert læringsklima og således bygge mestringstro. Et annet resultat er at et konkurranseorientert klima kan gi redusert mestringstro i en samlet kadettgruppe. Dette har betydning for utviklingen av narrativet: Det går bra til slutt!

Serving as a military officer requires among other skills strong communication skills. The Norwegian Military Academy (NMA) educates its cadets in the use of guidance as a leadership communication tool. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether participating in a 5-day guidance course would lead to an improvement of the ability to communicate better with others. Materials and Methods: Forty-nine officers from the NMA participated in the study. The participants served as supervisors in nine exercises related to practicing guidance as a communication tool. Eight of the participants filled out a questionnaire three times during the 5-day course. Results: The results showed that the supervisors felt that they became better at communicating with others and at building and maintaining relationships. Interestingly, trust was found to decline a bit between the supervisor and the person being supervised. However, they felt that they got to know the other person. In addition, the supervisors felt that they increased their awareness of which communication tools that were effective to use to give the conversation its necessary/desired content and form. They also felt that they became more aware of the kind of information they asked for in the conversation. Furthermore, they felt that they were able to communicate more effectively as leaders, and they perceived that their ability to develop others became enhanced by the use of guidance. Finally, the supervisor´s felt that their ability to influence the supervised person´s attitudes through the creation of new thinking and reflection also increased. Conclusions: The results from the present study suggest that practicing guidance as a leadership communication tool is an effective communication tool for military officers.

Background: For military officers it is important to accomplish the mission and to take care of their personnel. The key to knowing how to challenge and support each individual in one’s unit lies in leadership communication and in getting to know each one. Purpose of Study: To discuss the use of guidance as a tool for improving leadership communication skills in officers. Sources of Evidence: The Norwegian Armed Forces needs leaders who can act in their role and position. The challenge is to collect and share information, to create a common situational awareness, and hence to achieve an interaction with others that provides the desired efficiency in accordance with the Norwegian Armed Forces Joint Operational Doctrine. Main argument: The officer needs knowledge and skills in building good relations with others in their own unit. The Norwegian Military Academy teaches guidance as a communication tool in leadership development. This is facilitated through a five-day course in guidance. The interpersonal relationships create a sense of esprit de corps, that is, feelings of loyalty, enthusiasm, devotion to a group, and mutual trust. Guidance helps the officers to learn about themselves and others, their own reaction patterns and those of others, and gives them an understanding of relationships. Conclusion: Dialogue provides an opportunity to reflect on the professional and personal challenges and thoughts. The focus is on facilitating that the individuals being guided increase their will to reflect on their own thought patterns and emotions.

The purpose of this article is to provide a perspective on the evolution of the Global Special Operations Forces Enterprise as seen from a partner perspective. The article starts with a review of the historical antecedents of Special Operations Forces since the second world war and the development of the Norwegian Special Operations Forces until today. The article then continues with a discussion of the development of the Global Special Operations Forces Network. The construction of a Special Operations Forces network and the operationalization of the Global Special Operations Forces Network is then discussed. Steps that were taken to maintain the imitative and the challenges of creating a coalition to participate in Operation Inherent Resolve is then discussed. Some conclusions regarding the coalition of the willing in relation to the Global Special Operations Forces Network are drawn, and challenges related to this is then discussed. A recommendation in view of the revealed challenges is that a beneficial step for the Global Special Operations Forces Network would be to define the organizational structure and clearly articulate it for operations at all levels.

The aim of this paper is to review empirical findings and explanations relevant to the issue when concurrent decisions are integrated and when they are not integrated. There are few directly related studies. Therefore, the review also covers related phenomena involving the effect of a prior outcome on subsequent decisions, sunk-cost effects, and escalation. An important question emerging from the literature review is the question why integration have been obtained in studies of effects of prior outcomes, sunk cost effects, and escalation, at the same time as this has not been the case with concurrent decisions? One reason may be the existence of mental accounting in these studies. Another is that choices are riskless. An idea for further research is to make subjects being able to think through all possible consequences in a concurrent decision problem. By explicitly illuminating the risk or uncertainty to the subjects, it may be possible to obtain integration in concurrent decisions.

In the present study it was shown that decision heuristics and confidence judgements play important roles in the building of preferences. Based on a dual-process account of thinking, the study compared people who did well versus poorly on a series of decision heuristics and overconfidence judgement tasks. The two groups were found to differ with regard to their information search behaviour in introduced multiattribute choice tasks. High performers on the judgemental tasks were less influenced in their decision processes by numerical information format (probabilities vs. frequencies) compared to low performers. They also looked at more attributes and spent more time on the multiattribute choice tasks. The results reveal that performance on decision heuristics and overconfidence tasks has a bearing both on heuristic and analytic processes in multiattribute decision making.