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2022 MAY 19 (NewsRx) -- By a News Reporter-Staff News Editor at Women's Health Weekly -- To highlight the importance of women being proactive about their health, CVS Health (NYSE: [...]

Background: The seroprevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among Canadians is estimated at 0.3% to 0.9%. Of those with chronic HCV infection, 10% to 20% will experience advanced liver disease by 30 years of infection. Targeted screening seems a plausible strategy. We aimed to estimate the health and economic effects of various screening and treatment strategies for chronic HCV infection in Canada. Methods: We used a state-transition model to examine the cost-effectiveness of 4 screening strategies: no screening; screen and treat with pegylated interferon plus ribavarin; screen and treat with pegylated interferon and ribavarin-based direct-acting antiviral agents; and screen and treat with interferon-free direct-acting antivirals. We considered Canadian residents in 2 age groups: 25-64 and 45-64 years of age. We obtained model data from the literature. We predicted deaths related to chronic HCV infection, costs, quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. Results: We found that screening and treating would prevent at least 9 HCV-related deaths per 10 000 persons screened over the lifetime of the cohort. Screening was associated with QALY increases of 0.0032 to 0.0095 and cost increases of $124 to $338 per person, which translated to an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $34 359 to $44 034 per QALY gained, relative to no screening, depending on age group screened and antiviral therapy received. Interpretation: A selective one-time HCV screening program for people 25-64 or 45-64 years of age in Canada would likely be cost-effective. Identification of silent cases of chronic HCV infection and the offer of treatment when appropriate could extend the lives of Canadians at reasonable cost., The growing burden of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection poses a significant public health concern. A recent study of disease burden in Ontario ranked hepatitis C first among all [...]

OBJECTIVE--Although screening for diabetes and prediabetes is recommended, it is not clear how best or whom to screen. We therefore compared the economics of screening according to baseline risk. RESEARCH [...]

Background: Despite rising rates of female screening, a high economic burden remains associated with Chlamydia infection from high rates of undetected asymptomatic disease and its associated sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and chronic pelvic pain (CP). Males comprise the majority of US military recruits and represent an ideal population in which to achieve identification and interruption of sexually transmitted infection among infected partners through mass tandem screening. Methods: We developed a static decision tree incorporating a calibrated Markov model to predict the differences in healthcare payer direct healthcare costs, cases of PID and CP averted among female partners of male recruits through implementation of either selective (aged 24 and younger) or universal recruit screening policies incorporating partner notification. Results: A policy of selective male screening added $10.30 in direct costs per recruit, whereas universal male screening added an additional $1.60. A policy of selective male screening yielded an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $3.7K per case of PID averted, and $7.3K per case of CP averted, whereas universal screening yielded an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $8.2K per additional case of PID and $16.4K per additional case of CP averted beyond selective screening. Neither policy was dominant, and results were qualitatively robust to single-variable and probabilistic sensitivity analysis. Conclusions: In consonance with other studies of mass tandem screening, we found both selective and universal male recruit screening cost-effective as compared with other interventions. Our results argue in favor of universal screening of male recruits for Chlamydia infection, linked to partner notification.

Background: We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of Chlamydia screening strategies that use different methods of specimen collection: cervical swabs, urines, and self-obtained vaginal swabs. Methods: A decision analysis was modeled for a hypothetical cohort of 10,000 per year of women attending sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics. Incremental cost-effectiveness of 4 screening strategies were compared: 1) Endocervical DNA probe test (PACE2, Gen-Probe), 2) Endocervical AC2 (Aptima Combo 2, Gen-Probe), 3) Self-Obtained Vaginal AC2, and 4) Urine AC2. Sensitivities of the vaginal, urine, and cervical AC2 tests were derived from 324 women attending STD clinics. The primary outcome was cases of pelvic inflammatory disease prevented. The model incorporated programmatic screening and treatment costs and medical cost savings from sequelae prevented. Results: Chlamydia prevalence in the sampled population was 11.1%. Sensitivities of vaginal, urine, and cervical AC2 were 97.2%, 91.7%, and 91.7%, respectively. The sensitivity of the DNA probe was derived from the literature and estimated at 68.8%. The self-obtained vaginal AC2 strategy was the least expensive and the most cost-effective, preventing 17 more cases of pelvic inflammatory disease than the next least expensive strategy. Conclusions: Use of a vaginal swab to detect Chlamydia in this STD clinic population was cost-saving and cost-effective.

Objectives: On-site screening and same-day treatment of maternal syphilis in underresourced settings can avert greater numbers of congenital syphilis cases, but health outcomes and associated costs must be evaluated jointly. Methods: We used decision analysis to estimate the incremental cost-effectiveness of two on-site antenatal syphilis screening strategies to avert congenital infections--qualitative RPR (on-site RPR) and treponemal immunochromatographic strip assay (on-site ICS)--compared to the current practice (off-site RPR/TPHA). Findings: With antenatal active syphilis prevalence of 6.3%, the incremental cost-effectiveness of on-site ICS in averting congenital infections was estimated to be USD104, averting 82% of cases expected in absence of a program. The incremental cost-effectiveness of off-site RPR/TPHA was USD82 but would avert only 55% of congenital syphilis cases. On-site RPR was dominated by the other screening strategies. Conclusions: In settings of high maternal syphilis prevalence, onsite antenatal screening with ICS is a cost-effective approach to reduce the incidence of congenital syphilis.

Background: Few cost-effectiveness evaluations of screening men in jails for chlamydia have been published, and none have evaluated the cost-effectiveness of providing partner notification services to the partners of chlamydia-infected inmates. Goal: The goal of this study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the chlamydia screening and partner notification programs for men conducted by a Massachusetts jail compared with 3 hypothetical alternatives. Study Design: Using jail cost and testing data, we used decision analyses to compare the cost and effectiveness of universal screening, age-based screening with 2 age cutoffs, and testing of symptomatic inmates at intake using treated cases of chlamydia and gonorrhea as the primary outcome. We also evaluated the cost-effectiveness of adding partner notification to these alternatives. Results: Universal screening was the most effective and expensive alternative. Age-based screening would have identified slightly fewer cases at half the cost of universal screening. The net cost of partner notification was low. Assuming high sequelae costs in female partners made partner notification a cost-saving intervention. Conclusions: Age-based screening could lower costs without substantially sacrificing effectiveness. Notifying partners of infected inmates was a cost-effective adjunct to screening inmates.

Background and cost burden of HPV infection Human papillomavirus (HPV) infects squamous and glandular epithelial tissues. Noncancerous hand and plantar warts (HPV types 1, 2, and 4) as well as [...]

OBJECTIVE--We evaluated various strategies to identify individuals aged 45-74 years with pre-diabetes (either impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS--We conducted a cost analysis to evaluate [...]

Background: Wide-scale application of urine-based screening of asymptomatic men for chlamydial infection has not been thoroughly assessed. Goal: The goal was to compare clinical and economic consequences of three strategies: (1) no screening, (2) screening with ligase chain reaction (LCR) assay of urine, and (3) prescreening urine with a leukocyte esterase test (LE) and confirming positives with LCR. Study Design: We used a decision analytic model. Results: At a chlamydia prevalence of 5%, the no screening cost was $7.44 per man screened, resulting in 522 cases of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) per 100,000 men. LE-LCR was most cost-effective, preventing 242 cases of PID over no screening at an additional cost of $29.14 per male screened. The LCR strategy prevented 104 more cases of PID than LE-LCR but cost $22.62 more per male screened. For this to be more efficient than LE-LCR, the LCR assay cost needed to decline to [less than or equal to] $18. Conclusion: At a chlamydia prevalence of 5%, LE-LCR is the most efficient use of resources. If LCR cost decreases or chlamydia prevalence increases, the LCR strategy is favored.

Background: About 80% of cervical cancers occur in less-developed countries. This disproportionate burden of cervical cancer in such countries is due mainly to the lack of well-organized screening programs. Several cervical cancer screening strategies have been proposed as more cost-effective than cytology screening. We compared the costs and benefits of different strategies and their effectiveness in saving lives in a less-developed country. Methods: We used a population-based simulation model to evaluate the incremental societal costs and benefits in Thailand of seven screening techniques, including visual inspection of the cervix after applying acetic acid (VIA), human papillomavirus (HPV) testing, Pap smear, and combinations of screening tests, and examined the discounted costs per year of life saved (LYS). Results: Compared with no (i.e., not well-organized) screening, all strategies saved lives, at costs ranging from $121 to $6720 per LYS, and reduced mortality, by up to 58%. Comparing each strategy with the next least expensive alternative, VIA performed at 5-year intervals in women of ages 35-55 with immediate treatment if abnormalities are found was the least expensive option and saved the greatest number of lives, with a cost of $517 per LYS. HPV screening resulted in similar costs and benefits, if the test cost is $5 and if 90% of women undergo follow-up after an abnormal screen. Cytology (Pap smear) was a reasonable alternative if sensitivity exceeds 80% and if 90% of women undergo follow-up. Compared with no screening, use of a combination of Pap smear and HPV testing at 5-year intervals in women of ages 20-70 could achieve greater than 90% reduction in cervical cancer mortality at a cost of $1683 per LYS, and VIA could achieve 83% reduction at $524 per LYS. Conclusions: Well-organized screening programs can reduce cervical cancer mortality in less-developed countries at low costs. These cost-effectiveness data can enhance decision-making about optimal policies for a given setting.

Background: Recommended screening policies for cervical cancer differ widely among countries with respect to targeted age range, screening interval, and total number of scheduled screening examinations (i.e., Pap smears). We compared the efficiency of cervical cancer-screening programs by performing a cost-effectiveness analysis of cervical cancer-screening policies from high-income countries. Methods: We used the microsimulation screening analysis (MISCAN) program to model and determine the costs and effects of almost 500 screening policies, some fictitious and some actual (i.e., recommended by national guidelines). The costs (in U.S. dollars) and effects (in years of life gained) were compared for each policy to identify the most efficient policies. Results: There were 15 efficient screening policies (i.e., no alternative policy exists that results in more life-years gained for lower costs). For these policies, which considered two to 40 total scheduled examinations, the age range expanded gradually from 40-52 years to 20-80 years as the screening interval decreased from 12 to 1.5 years. For the efficient policies, the predicted gain in life expectancy ranged from 11.6 to 32.4 days, compared with a gain of 46 days if cervical cancer mortality were eliminated entirely. The average cost-effectiveness ratios increased from $6700 (for the longest screening interval) to $23 900 per life-year gained. For some countries, the recommended screening policies were close to efficient, but the cost-effectiveness could be improved by reducing the number of scheduled examinations, starting them at later ages, or lengthening the screening interval. Conclusions: The basis for the diversity in the screening policies among high-income countries does not appear to relate to the screening policies' cost-effectiveness ratios, which are highly sensitive to the number of Pap smears offered during a lifetime. [J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94:193-204]

Background: Undetected and untreated Chlamydia trachomatis infections can result in a significant health burden. Diagnostic testing refers to tests performed on patients with symptoms, whereas screening refers to testing specimens in asymptomatic patients. The goal of diagnostic testing and screening programs are early identification of infections to prevent upper tract infection and transmission to other partners. Goal: To compare the costs and outcomes of alternative diagnostic testing and screening programs for women ages 15 to 24 years in the province of Ontario, Canada. Study Design: Using outcome probabilities from the literature and a consensus group, together with the costs from insurance billing, a decision analytic model was constructed to determine the baseline risk of C trachomatis and related sequelae. Seven diagnostic testing and screening programs were compared over a 10-year period. The programs compared included the use of nucleic acid amplification assays collected from urine or endocervical swab specimens. Results: Largely because of lower sensitivity the urine-based testing or screening programs were dominated by the swab-based programs. The move from swab-based testing to a swab-based screening program for high-risk women costs $1873 per case of C trachomatis averted. Expanding the program further to include all women in Ontario between 15 and 24 years of age is considerably more costly at $5990 per case averted. Conclusions: It is more costly and more effective to screen and treat high-risk women ages 15 to 24 years for C trachomatis than to perform only swab-based diagnostic testing on symptomatic women. Expanding the screening program to include all women ages 15 to 24 years is considerably more expensive and only moderately more effective than screening only high-risk women.

Background: Models commonly used for the economic assessment of chlamydial screening programs do not consider population effects. Goal: To develop a novel dynamic approach for the economic evaluation of chlamydial prevention measures and to determine the cost-effectiveness of a general practitioner-based screening program. Study Design: The dynamic approach was used to estimate the cost-effectiveness of a screening program for the first 10 years of screening in The Netherlands. Screening involved a ligase chain reaction test on urine followed by standardized therapies and partner referral. Eligible persons were sexually active, 15 to 24 years, visited a general practitioner, and had no symptoms of sexually transmitted diseases. The heterosexual model population, which consisted of persons 15 to 64 years, had a total chlamydial prevalence of 4.1% before screening. Screening effects on chlamydial incidence were computed by using a population-based stochastic simulation model. Incidence data were connected with a decision analysis model to determine the health effects of the program. The net costs of the program were calculated (investment costs minus averted costs, in 1997 US$) from a societal perspective and expressed per major outcome averted (symptomatic pelvic inflammatory disease, chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancy, infertility, neonatal pneumonia). Results: Unlike the standard static approach, our model adequately addresses dynamic processes such as chlamydial transmission and the impact of screening programs on chlamydial incidence in the population. During the first 10 years of screening, the investigated program yields savings of US $492 or US $1,086 per major outcome averted, excluding or including indirect costs, respectively. These results depend on chlamydial prevalence and partner referral. Conclusions: The cost-effectiveness of chlamydial screening programs seems best to be determined by using dynamic modeling on a population basis. In addition to preventing negative health outcomes, the investigated screening program may save costs.

Cost-effectiveness analysis has been applied to screening of high school athletes for risk of sudden cardiac death. the 12-lead ECG is the most cost-effective preparticipation cardiovascular testing method of the three recommended. Similar cost-effectiveness for history and physical examination of 2D echocardiography would require a 2-fold increase in sensitivity or a 4.5-fold decrease in cost, respectively. Whether excluding athletes from competitive sports in high school will change the natural history of the disease or not is not known.

Background: Highly sensitive and specific DNA amplification assays are available for use on cervical and urine specimens. These new tests have the potential to identify more chlamydial infections than the commonly used enzyme immunoassay and DNA probe tests, yet they are more expensive. This study sought to assess the cost effectiveness of cell culture, enzyme immunoassay (EIA), DNA probe (Pace 2), polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of cervical and urine specimens, and ligase chain reaction (LCR) of cervical and urine specimens as screening tools for Chlamydia trachomatis in asymptomatic women younger than 30 years of age attending family planning clinics. Study Design: Program costs; medical cost savings of prevented sequelae in women, male sex partners, and infant; and number of prevented cases of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), neonatal infections, and male sex partner urethritis and epididymitis were modeled in a decision analysis conducted from a health care system perspective. Results are expressed for a cohort of 18,000 women. Results: If no screening for C. trachomatis were conducted in Maryland, 497 cases of PID would develop, costing $2.2 million in future medical costs. Use of EIA to detect chlamydial infection would prevent 240 cases of PID and save $887,000 over no screening. Alternatively, use of DNA amplification assays on urine specimens would prevent up to an additional 66 cases and save $287,100 over EIA. Use of LCR on cervical specimens would prevent at least 13 additional cases of PID over the urine-based assays, but would cost $3,005 for each additional case prevented. In women receiving routine pelvic examinations, LCR of cervical specimens would prevent the most disease and provide the highest cost savings. In women not receiving routine pelvic examinations, use of LCR on cervical specimens would prevent the most disease but would cost approximately $28,000 per additional case of PID prevented over DNA amplification of urine. Conclusions: Compared with EIA screening, the strategy with the lowest program costs, a screening strategy that combines use of DNA amplification on cervical specimens in women receiving pelvic examinations, and DNA amplification of urine in women with no medical indications necessitating a pelvic examination, prevents the most cases of PID and provides the highest cost savings. With enhanced sensitivity over the other diagnostic assays and with the use of noninvasive specimen collection, DNA amplification assays should be implemented as cost-effective components of a screening program for C. trachomatis., DNA amplification tests of women at family planning clinics would be the most useful and cost effective for preventing pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Combining the cost of tests with the amount saved by prevention of PID and infection of sex partners and children, the DNA amplification test is more cost effective than the lower-priced enzyme immunoassay (EIA). Other tests might prevent more cases of PID, but at an extremely high price per case, except for women having a pelvic exam. The DNA amplification test can be used whether or not a pelvic exam is performed.

Women attending family planning clinics in Colorado during 1988 were screened for Chlamydia trachomatis infection by enzyme immunoassay (EIA, Chlamydiazyme, Abbott Laboratories; Abbott Park, IL). Cervical specimens from 11,793 women attending 22 family planning clinics were analyzed. Patient history and physical exams were used to assess risk factors for infection. A total of 913 individuals (7.7%) had positive culture results for C. trachomatis. Multivariate analysis showed that infection was significantly related to endocervical bleeding, cervical mucopurulent discharge, a new sexual partner in the last 3 months or multiple previous sexual partners (> 3) in the last year, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives, and age. Increased odd ratios were observed for the combination of endocervical bleeding and mucopurulent discharge and sexual history that included partners over the previous year as well as the most recent 3 months. A combination of these criteria was used to selectively screen women attending Colorado family planning clinics on an ongoing basis. A cost-benefit analysis employing a model reported previously showed a significant financial benefit associated with universal screening over either selective screening or no screening for C. trachomatis in this population.

In the December issue of STI, Honey et al summarise and critically review studies of cost effectiveness analysis (CEA) of Chlamydia trachomatis screening to provide recommendations for future screening studies. [...]

Liver Cancer Screens in Hepatitis C Routine screening for hepatocellular carcinoma is cost effective in patients with cirrhosis related to chronic hepatitis C infections, Dr. Otto S. Lin said at [...]

This study estimated the cost-effectiveness for diabetes screening on high-risk Spanish population omitting the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) when: a) Hypothesis 1=Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) test [is greater than [...]

Background: Comprehensive analyses have shown that screening for cancer usually induces net costs. In this study, the possible costs and savings of endoscopic colorectal cancer screening are explored to investigate whether the induced savings may compensate for the costs of screening. Methods: A simulation model for evaluation of colorectal cancer screening, MISCAN-COLON, is used to predict costs and savings for the U.S. population, assuming that screening is performed during a period of 30 years. Plausible baseline parameter values of epidemiology, natural history, screening test characteristics, and unit costs are based on available data and expert opinion. Important parameters are varied to extreme but plausible values. Results: Given the expert opinion-based assumptions, a program based on every 5-year sigmoidoscopy screenings could result in a net savings of direct health care costs due to prevention of cancer treatment costs that compensate for the costs of screening, diagnostic follow-up, and surveillance. This result persists when costs and health effects are discounted at 3%. The 'break-even' point, the time required before savings exceed costs, is 35 years for a screening program that terminates after 30 years and 44 years for a screening program that continues on indefinitely. However, net savings increase or turn into net costs when alternative assumptions about natural history of colorectal cancer, costs of screening, surveillance, and diagnostics are considered. Conclusions: Given the present, limited knowledge of the disease process of colorectal cancer, test characteristics, and costs, it may well be that the induced savings by endoscopic colorectal cancer screening completely compensate for the costs. [J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:557-63]

Boulware LE, Jaar BG, Tarver-Carr ME, Brancati FL, Powe NR. Screening for proteinuria in US adults. A cost-effective analysis. JAMA 2003; 290:3101-3114. * CLINICAL QUESTION Is annual proteinuria screening in [...]