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ASTRAL topology of the 90%-complete phylogeny with problematic toepad samples removed (i.e., Coracias temminckii, Merops revoilii, Tanysiptera galatea, Actenoides bougainvillei, Todiramphus recurvirostris, T. reichenbachii, T. godeffroyi, and T. s. pealei). Evaluated with 500 multilocus bootstraps. Black circles indicate ≥ 95%, grey circles indicate ≥ 75–≤ 94%, and white indicate ≤ 74% bootstrap support.

Multispecies coalescent topology of the 75% complete dataset of well performing toepads and tissues, estimated with 10 million quartets in SVDqartets with 100 BS support. Black circles indicate ≥ 95%, grey circles indicate ≥ 75–≤ 94%, and white indicate ≤ 74% bootstrap support.

Maximum likelihood topology from the concatenated, partitioned RAxML analysis of the 90% complete dataset of Coraciiformes and their outgroups with 1000 bootstraps. Dots represent bootstrap support: black circles indicate ≥ 95%, grey circles indicate ≥ 75–≤ 94%, and white indicate ≤ 74% bootstrap support.

Maximum likelihood topology from the concatenated, partitioned RAxML analysis of the 75% complete dataset of Coraciiformes and their outgroups with 1000 bootstraps. Dots represent bootstrap support: black circles indicate ≥ 95%, grey circles indicate ≥ 75–≤ 94%, and white indicate ≤ 74% bootstrap support.

Maximum likelihood topology from the concatenated, partitioned RAxML analysis of the 90% complete dataset of Coraciiformes and their outgroups using 15 ML searches for the best fit phylogenetic tree reconciled with 108 nonparametric bootstrap replicates as determined by the AutoMRE RAxML function. Dots represent bootstrap support: black circles indicate ≥ 95%, grey circles indicate ≥ 75–≤ 94%, and white indicate ≤ 74% bootstrap support.

Maximum likelihood topology from the concatenated, partitioned RAxML analysis of the 75% complete dataset of well performing toepads and tissue samples of Coraciiformes and their outgroups with 1000 bootstraps. Dots represent bootstrap support: black circles indicate ≥ 95%, grey circles indicate ≥ 75–≤ 94%, and white indicate ≤ 74% bootstrap support.

Time-calibrated maximum clade credibility tree showing species level relationships of Coraciiformes based on 500 ultraconserved elements, fossil calibrations, and maximum likelihood topology constraints. Nodes are highly supported unless indicated otherwise. Node ages were estimated in BEAST with three fossil calibrations (Table S2), indicated by circles at nodes, and two secondary calibrations (see text) indicated by empty red circles; 95% credible intervals of divergence times are denoted by horizontal grey bars at nodes. Ancestral ranges were estimated with the DEC+j model from current species' distributions, indicated by coloured squares at tips. Coloured squares at nodes indicate inferred ancestral ranges. Elongated rectangles indicate a posteriori added fossil taxa that represent Holarctic distributions of the group. Note that distributions of outgroup taxa were coded to represent the entire distribution of the corresponding taxonomic family. Areas inferred: A) North America; B) Caribbean islands, including Trinidad; C) South America; D) Palearctic; E) Africa and Madagascar; F) Indomalaya; G) Wallacea and the Philippines; H) New Guinea and Australia; I) Oceania, including the Bismarck Archipelago and New Zealand.

Supplementary methods, results, and discussion

Multispecies coalescent topology of the 90% complete dataset of all possible quartets from SVDqartets with 100 BS support. Black circles indicate ≥ 95%, grey circles indicate ≥ 75–≤ 94%, and white indicate ≤ 74% bootstrap support.

Multispecies coalescent topology of the 75% complete dataset of 10 million quartets produced by SVDqartets with 100 BS support. Black circles indicate ≥ 95%, grey circles indicate ≥ 75–≤ 94%, and white indicate ≤ 74% bootstrap support.