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SUMMARY: Currently, the Patagonian huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) is endangered. Anatomical studies focused on understanding the anatomy of the deer most threatened by extinction in South America is a challenge for anatomists, veterinarians and biologists. Research carried out for its conservation has focused mainly on its ecology and pathology, leaving gaps in anatomical knowledge, which is basic and important for a comprehensive understanding of this species. Gross anatomy and radiography of the skeleton of the pelvic limb was performed in three adult Patagonian huemul. Bone specimens of three skeletally mature Patagonian huemul deer were used for gross osteological and radiographic studies. This study was conducted to reveal the morphometric and morphological features of the ossa membri pelvini of the Patagonian huemul. The main findings suggest the presence of powerful extensor muscles in the coxofemoral, femorotibial and tarsal joints, useful during walking, jogging and propulsion in deer. In general, the MNF of Patagonian huemul differ in position with respect to domestic ungulates. In addition, the presence of a notch or obturator canal was observed, with variability in morphology and development among the specimens.

Resumen: A partir de consideraciones acerca de la geografía cultural para el archipiélago fueguino, se delibera sobre los registros de circulación de bienes, incluyendo la roca Miraflores, hematita, pirita y otros. Además, se discute su relación con la organización e instalaciones humanas que involucran el uso del hinterland o zonas interiores -casos como la búsqueda de corteza, caza de guanacos (Lama guanicoe) y huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), disposición de los muertos- y el equipamiento de individuos, canoas y lugares, considerando por ejemplo los corrales de pesca, varaderos y porteos o pasos de indio. Todos estos casos muestran la amplitud efectiva del nicho ecocultural para tiempos recientes en los archipiélagos de Fuego-Patagonia.

A combination of intramuscular medetomidine and ketamine was used to immobilize 46 free-ranging huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) with a remote drug delivery system in Chilean Patagonia for tagging and biological sampling. Captures occurred in May–October of 2005–09 between fall and early spring in the southern hemisphere. An initial dose of 6.6 mg medetomidine and 185 mg ketamine was adjusted after 17 captures to 3 mg and 200 mg, respectively, in the 29 remaining deer. Mean±SD adjusted dose was 0.042±0.012 mg/kg of medetomidine and 2.929±0.427 mg/kg of ketamine. Inductions were calm and the mean±SD time to sternal recumbency was 10.3±10.1 min. Palpebral reflex and jaw tone were present during immobilization. Atipamezole at 5 mg/mg of medetomidine was administered intramuscularly for reversal after 55.3±18.8 min procedure time. Recoveries were smooth and mean±SD time to standing was 10.2±3.3. All immobilized animals were hypoxemic by pulse oximetry (blood oxygen saturation approximately 81%). Three animals that developed apnea were resuscitated through chest compression and atipamezole administration, another regurgitated during capture, and all developed tachypnea. The combination of medetomidine-ketamine and atipamezole can be used for partially reversible immobilization of huemul, but supplemental oxygen should be administered, blood oxygenation should be monitored, and equipment for intubation and manual ventilation should be available.

The human population grows inexorably. When Charles Darwin explored the southern cone of South America in 1830, fewer than 1.2 billion people inhabited Earth. When Ehrlich’s Population Bomb appeared in 1968 there were ~3.5 billion. We approach eight billion today, and biospheric impacts do not abate. We’ve affected most life forms through climate modification, harvest, erasure and fragmentation of habitat, disease, and the casting of alien species. Given the lack of abatement in human population growth, herein we focus on the modalities of ecological disruption – direct and indirect – that mitigate the changing role of ungulates in landscapes. Much of what was once generally predictable in terms of pattern and process is no longer. Offshore climatic events have strong onshore consequence, as exemplified by toxic algal blooms in the Patagonian Pacific. These have diminished the harvest of fish and likely resulted in fisherman using dogs to hunt huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), the most endangered large terrestrial mammal of the Western Hemisphere. Similarly, human economies foment change in the Himalayan realm and Gobi Desert by increasing numbers of cashmere-producing goats, and where dogs that once followed tourists or guarded livestock they now hunt a half dozen threatened, endangered, and rare ungulates including kiang (Equus kiang) and chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii), saiga (Saiga tatarica) and takin (Budorcas taxicolor), spread disease, and displace snow leopards (Panthera uncia). In North America’s Great Basin Desert, one hundred years of intense livestock grazing created a phase shift by which changed plant communities enabled mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) colonization. An altered predator-prey system ensued with the arrival of pumas (Panthera concolor). Patterns of resilience postulated by Hollings (1973) become more difficult to witness in the absence of humans as our domination of earth destabilizes systems beyond return points. These include ungulates both in and out of protected areas. Consequently, only messy projections of future community reorganization seem reasonable whether related to food webs or assembly rules that once governed ungulate communities of the very recent past.

In a huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) population sympatric with cattle, we found evidence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection. Three huemul faecal pellet samples and two cows pats were collected and cultured for MAP presence. DNA was then extracted for PCR analysis of all signal-positive cultures. To assess whether MAP isolates obtained from huemul faeces were associated with typical MAP isolated from livestock, positive confirmed culture samples were sub-typed using a combination of five Mycobacterial Interspersed Repetitive Unit-Variable Number Tandem Repeat Analysis and one Short Sequence Repeat analysis markers. All faecal samples from both species were MAP positive. One huemul presented a different bacteria profile genotype not described before, suggesting that huemul and cattle in Patagonia could carry a unique MAP strain.

Objectives Distinct diseases prevent endangered huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) recovery. Fundamental etiological factors include nutriments, a mayor component of habitat quality. Undernutrition affects growth, skeletal development, osteopathology, reproduction and immunocompetence: this paper amplifies data corroborating micro-nutrient deficiencies among huemul. Results In Argentina, 57% huemul cadavers exhibited osteopathology, with new cases reported here. Recently, 86% live huemul had osteopathology: cranial lesions involved antemortem tooth loss, reducing feeding efficiency and body condition, with starvation deaths. This population had tissues well deficient compared to other cervids, averaging 0.28 ppm selenium, 4.98 ppm copper, whereas for manganese 55% were deficient (2.52 ppm) and 45% adequate (42.79 ppm). Recently, lesions in one Chilean huemul were interpreted to stem from parapoxvirus. That population also has cases with cranial osteopathologies, high disease susceptibility (parapoxvirus, parasitism, foot lesions), crippled antlers, and low density, indicative of marginal habitat and primary etiological factors like undernutrition and immunosuppression. The reported atypical symptoms attributed to parapoxvirus may relate to probable diagnostic limitations, but does support presence of nutritional deficiencies. Patagonia has selenium deficient plants and livestock, including severe muscular dystrophy, and soil levels in extant huemul areas considered very deficient. Moreover, 73% of Chilean huemul were selenium deficient and 64% severely deficient with concomitant cranial osteopathology.

Objectives Most subpopulations of endangered huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) fail to recover, frequently due to osteopathology. Equivalent pathology was detected only postmortem in an additional deer 365 km further north, stressing the need to improve clinical evaluations of live huemul. Results Captured on a farm and attended by authorities in charge of huemul, the deer was considered apt for relocation and release. Delays with attendance and lack of reversal drugs resulted in his death. The subsequent necropsy revealed severe osteopathology particularly in mandibles and maxillae. Such disease in another southern population affected 57+ % among dead adults, and 86% among live adults. The present case stems from a new subpopulation, isolated 365 km further north. Such severe pathology demands that individuals be rehabilitated, especially relevant with severely endangered species, because liberations will cause premature death and loss of reproductive lifetime. Live huemul must be examined utmost professionally especially regarding this pathophysiognomy. This incidence represents the typical situation of extant huemul, being displaced from their traditional migratory behavior to utilize fertile low-elevation habitat. This young male may have been dispersing, but reaching valleys usually leads to death due to locally intense anthropogenic activities. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-018-3755-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Protected areas help to decrease human impacts on threatened mammals but do not always include species’ core habitats. Here we focus on the Vulnerable taruka Hippocamelus antisensis near the Atacama Desert, Chile, a population that is mainly threatened by interactions with local human communities. We develop a species distribution model for taruka and assess the contribution of protected areas to safeguarding its preferred habitat. From sightings (collected during 2004–2015), absence records (collected in 2014), and environmental variables, we determined that taruka habitat is scarce, highly fragmented and limited to humid areas. Only 7.7–11.2% of the taruka's core habitat is under protection. We recommend the establishment of a protected area in the south of Arica-Parinacota district, an area without settlements that lies within the taruka's core habitat, along with educational programmes, fencing of crops, and inclusion of communities in decision-making in areas where farmer–taruka interactions are negative.

Objective. Identify parasites in huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) feces from natural protected areas of south–central Chile and evaluate differences in parasite prevalence between regions and seasons. Materials and methods. 200 fecal samples from huemul were collected during all seasons of the year from different localities of the Ñuble, Aysén and Magallanes regions between years 2006 and 2008. Samples were analyzed using flotation and sedimentation techniques and further observed with the microscope in order to detect parasites. Additionally, 124 samples were analyzed to determine the presence of Fasciola hepatica. Results. The 38.0% (n=76/200) of samples were positive to at least one parasite form, evidencing a prevalence of 11.8% (n=2/17) in Ñuble, 22.8% (n=28/123) in Aysén and a 76.7% (n=46/60) in Magallanes. Moniezia sp. eggs were found in the Ñuble region, meanwhile, Strongyle-type eggs, Nematodirus sp. eggs and Eimeria spp. oocysts were found in the Aysén and Magallanes regions. There was no evidence of F. hepatica during sample examination. Differences in parasitism were detected between seasons in Aysén and Magallanes (p≤0.05). Conclusions. Aysén and Magallanes regions showed a relatively higher prevalence and diversity of parasites than the Ñuble region. This could be related to differences in density of huemul populations and livestock in each region. Further parasitological surveys in huemul populations from central and southern Chile should be performed in the future. Studies involving the relationship between the huemul and livestock and the potential inter- and intraspecific transmission of parasites are also required., Objetivo. Identificar parásitos en heces del huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) presente en áreas naturales protegidas del centro y sur de Chile y evaluar diferencias en la prevalencia de parásitos entre regiones y estaciones del año. Materiales y métodos. 200 muestras de heces de huemul fueron colectadas de distintas localidades de las regiones de Ñuble, Aysén y Magallanes a lo largo de todas las estaciones entre los años 2006 y 2008. Las muestras fueron analizadas utilizando las técnicas de flotación y sedimentación, para ser posteriormente observadas en el microscopio con el objetivo de detectar parásitos. Adicionalmente, se analizaron 124 de estas muestras para determinar la presencia de Fasciola hepatica. Resultados. El 38.0%(n=76/200) de las muestras analizadas fueron positivas a algún parásito, observándose una prevalencia de 11.8%(n=2/17) en Ñuble, 22.8%(n=28/123) en Aysén y un 76.7%(n=46/60) en Magallanes. En Ñuble se encontraron huevos de Moniezia sp., mientras que en Aysén y Magallanes se identificaron huevos tipo Estrongílido, Nematodirus sp. y ooquistes de Eimeria spp. No se evidenció F. hepatica en las muestras analizadas. Se detectan diferencias de parasitismo entre las estaciones (p≤0.05) en Aysén y Magallanes. Conclusiones. La diferencia en la prevalencia y diversidad parasitaria entre regiones incluidas en este estudio pueden estar relacionadas con la disimilitud en la densidad poblacional de huemules y la masa ganadera de cada región. Es necesario continuar con monitoreos parasitológicos en poblaciones de huemul en Chile sur y central y estudiar la relación de esta especie con el ganado y la posible transmisión inter- e intraespecífica de parásitos.

Cervidae are an Cetartiodactyla family that entered South America in the Pleistocene, during the event known as “Great American Biotic Exchange”. In the Argentinean Quaternary the genera Antifer, Epieuryceros, Morenelaphus and Paraceros, all extinct in the Late Pleistocene, are recognized along with the genera Hippocamelus, Pudu, Blastoceros, Ozotoceros and Mazama, present inhabitants of the South American territory, and some of which are represented also in Pleistocene times. The aim of this work is to present and describe new fossil deer remains from different Pleistocene localities in Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) and to make some geographical and environmental considerations. The southernmost record of the genus Morenelaphus and the species M. lujanensis is here presented, coming from Punta Alta locality, and the first female specimen assigned to Morenelaphus sp. is described, as well as new materials with the same assignment for the localities of Junín and Paraje 7 Bridges, Sauce Grande River Valley. New remains of Antifer sp., from San Bernardo locality, and Hippocamelus sulcatus from Junín locality are disclosed. The first Pleistocene record of Ozotoceros bezoarticus is presented for the Buenos Aires Province, coming from the Junín locality. Os Cervidae constituem uma das famílias de Cetartiodactyla que ingressaram na América do Sul no Pleistoceno, como parte do evento conhecido como “Grande Intercâmbio Biótico Americano”. No Quaternário argentino são reconhecidos os gêneros Antifer, Epieuryceros, Morenelaphus e Paraceros, extintos no Neopleistoceno, além dos gêneros Hippocamelus, Pudu, Blastoceros, Ozotoceros e Mazama, habitantes atuais do território sul-americano, alguns dos quais se encontram representados também no Pleistoceno. O presente estudo tem por objetivo dar a conhecer e descrever novos materiais de cervos fósseis procedentes de distintas localidades pleistocênicas da Província de Buenos Aires, Argentina, bem como discutir sobre a distribuição geográfica dos mesmos. É apresentado o registro mais austral do gênero Morenelaphus e da espécie M. lujanensis, correspondente a localidade de Punta Alta, e descrito o primeiro exemplar fêmea assignado a Morenelaphus sp., além de novos materiais com a mesma assignação para as localidades de Junín e Paraje 7 Puentes, Vale do Rio Sauce Grande. É dado a conhecer novos materiais de Antifer sp. para a localidade de San Bernardo, e Hippocamelus sulcatus para a localidade de Junín. É também apresentado o primeiro registro pleistocênico de Ozotoceros bezoarticus para a Província de Buenos Aires, procedente da localidade de Junín. Fil: Chimento, Nicolás Roberto. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Parque Centenario. Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia"; Argentina Fil: Zuccari, José Ignacio. Municipalidad de Junín (Buenos Aires); Argentina Fil: Marchetto, José María. Municipalidad de Junín (Buenos Aires); Argentina Fil: Berbach, Lorena. Museo Municipal de Ciencias Naturales Carlos Darwin; Argentina

Habitat loss is one of the main threats to wildlife, particularly large mammals. Estimating the potential distribution of threatened species to guide surveys and conservation is crucial, primarily because such species tend to exist in small fragmented populations. The Endangered huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus is endemic to the southern Andes of Chile and Argentina. Although the species occurs in the Valdivian Ecoregion, a hotspot for biodiversity, we have no information on its occupancy and potential distribution in this region. We built and compared species distribution models for huemul using the maximum entropy approach, using 258 presence records and sets of bioclimatic and geographical variables as predictors, with the objective of assessing the potential distribution of the species in the Valdivian Ecoregion. Annual temperature range and summer precipitation were the predictive variables with the greatest influence in the best-fitting model. Approximately 12,360 km2 of the study area was identified as suitable habitat for the huemul, of which 30% is included in the national protected area systems of Chile and Argentina. The map of potential distribution produced by our model will facilitate prioritization of future survey efforts in other remote and unexplored areas in which huemul have not been recorded since the 1980s but where there is a high probability of their occurrence.

El presente trabajo expone los resultados del análisis de la fauna recuperada en la localidad arqueológica de Laguna Cóndor, ubicada en el curso superior del río Gallegos en la zona de los Morros, Santa Cruz, Argentina. A pesar de la baja tasa de depositación ósea general, se registraron elevadas densidades puntuales de huesos muy fragmentados. Se identificó una alta diversidad de especies recuperadas aunque un único taxón fue explotado en forma intensa. El uso de la fauna estuvo dirigido fundamentalmente a la explotación de Lama guanicoe y, en forma ocasional, a recursos de bosque (Hippocamelus bisulcus) y a fauna introducida (Equus caballus). La evidencia refuerza la interpretación de Laguna Cóndor como un espacio explotado logísticamente en forma intensa y recurrente, pero por periodos relativamente breves hacia ca. 200 años AP. This paper presents the results of the analysis of faunal assemblages recovered at the archaeological locality of Laguna Condor, on the upper basin of the Gallegos River at the "Morros area", Santa Cruz, Argentina. Despite the low rate of bone deposition, high densities of highly fragmented bones were recorded. A high diversity of species was identified, although only one taxon was intensively exploited. The focus was on the exploitation of Lama guanicoe and, occasionally, forest resources (Hippocamelus bisulcus), and European fauna (Equus caballus). The evidence reinforces the interpretation of Laguna Condor as logistically, redundantly and intensively exploited place during short periods ca. 200 years AP. Fil: L'heureux, Gabriela Lorena. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Saavedra 15. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas; Argentina Fil: Borrero, Luis Alberto. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Saavedra 15. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas; Argentina

The huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) is an endangered cervid endemic to southern Argentina and Chile. Here we report foot lesions in 24 huemul from Bernardo O'Higgins National Park, Chile, between 2005 and 2010. Affected deer displayed variably severe clinical signs, including lameness and soft tissue swelling of the limbs proximal to the hoof or in the interdigital space, ulceration of the swollen tissues, and some developed severe proliferative tissue changes that caused various types of abnormal wear, entrapment, and/or displacement of the hooves and/or dewclaws. Animals showed signs of intense pain and reduced mobility followed by loss of body condition and recumbency, which often preceded death. The disease affected both genders and all age categories. Morbidity and mortality reached 80% and 40%, respectively. Diagnostics were restricted to a limited number of cases from which samples were available. Histology revealed severe papillomatous epidermal hyperplasia and superficial dermatitis. Electron microscopy identified viral particles consistent with viruses in the Chordopoxvirinae subfamily. The presence of parapoxvirus DNA was confirmed by a pan-poxvirus PCR assay, showing high identity (98%) with bovine papular stomatitis virus and pseudocowpoxvirus. This is the first report of foot disease in huemul deer in Chile, putatively attributed to poxvirus. Given the high morbidity and mortality observed, this virus might pose a considerable conservation threat to huemul deer in Chilean Patagonia. Moreover, this report highlights a need for improved monitoring of huemul populations and synergistic, rapid response efforts to adequately address disease events that threaten the species.

BackgroundClimate change is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity, pushing species to shift their distribution ranges and making existing protected areas inadequate. Estimating species distribution and potential modifications under climate change are then necessary for adjusting conservation and management plans; this is especially true for endangered species. An example of this issue is the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), an endemic endangered deer from the southern Andes Range, with less than 2,000 individuals. It is distributed in fragmented populations along a 2,000 km latitudinal gradient, in Chile and Argentina. Several threats have reduced its distribution to MethodsTo estimate its potential distribution and protected areas effectiveness, we constructed a species distribution model using 2,813 huemul presence points throughout its whole distribution range, together with 19 bioclimatic layers and altitude information from Worldclim. Its current distribution was projected for years 2050 and 2070 using five different Global Climate Models estimated for scenarios representing two carbon Representative Concentration Routes (RCP)—RCP4.5 and RCP6.0.ResultsBased on current huemul habitat variables, we estimated 91,617 km2of suitable habitat. In future scenarios of climate change, there was a loss of suitable habitat due to altitudinal and latitudinal variation. Future projections showed a decrease of 59.86–60.26% for the year 2050 and 58.57–64.34% for the year 2070 according to RCP4.5 and RCP6.0, respectively. Protected areas only covered only 36.18% of the present distribution, 38.57–34.94% for the year 2050 and 30.79–31.94% for 2070 under climate change scenarios.DiscussionModeling current and future huemul distributions should allow the establishment of priority conservation areas in which to focus efforts and funds, especially areas without official protection. In this way, we can improve management in areas heavily affected by climate change to help ensure the persistence of this deer and other species under similar circumstances worldwide.

Introduction Huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus Molina) is the most threatened flag species of Southern Patagonia, where conservation efforts were not effective to avoid the retraction of its distribution area. Habitat quality modeling can assist to design better management strategies for regional conservation planning. The objective was to elaborate one habitat suitability map for huemul, defining the environmental characteristics at landscape level, and determining the distribution of the suitable habitat inside the current natural reserve network. Methods We used a database of 453 records and explored 40 potential explanatory variables (climate, topographic, and landscape variables including human-related ones) to develop one habitat suitability map using the Environmental Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA) for Santa Cruz province (Argentina). We combined the outputs in a GIS project using different shapes, including the current natural reserve network. Results We defined the potential habitat for huemul, where forest edges and ecotone zones (e.g., mainly alpine environments) were the most important environmental variables, as well as some forest types (e.g., Nothofagus pumilio). Habitat losses were found in the extreme potential distribution areas (northern and southern areas), probably related to the increasing ranch activities. The current natural reserve network maintains approximately half of the huemul potential habitat in Santa Cruz province, where National Parks presented the similar conservation importance than the Provincial natural reserves. Conclusions Habitat suitability model for huemul can be used as a decision support system for new management strategies at different landscape levels to improve the current conservation efforts. EEA Santa Cruz Fil: Rosas, Yamina Micaela. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas. Laboratorio de Recursos Agroforestales; Argentina Fil: Peri, Pablo Luis. Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral; Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Santa Cruz; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Huertas Herrera, Alejandro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas. Laboratorio de Recursos Agroforestales; Argentina Fil: Pastore, Hernán. Administración de Parques Nacionales. Delegación Regional Patagonia Norte; Argentina Fil: Martínez Pastur, Guillermo José. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas. Laboratorio de Recursos Agroforestales; Argentina

Objective: The last 1500 endangered Patagonian huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) exist in > 100 groups which are not recovering. Prevalence of osteopathology in dead huemul was 57+% (Argentina), whereas similar cases in Chile were accompanied by selenium deficiency. The first clinical cases from live wild huemul confirm widespread osteopathology which explains short life spans, low recruitment, and thus absence of population recovery. Results: The first-ever radio-collaring of 3 male huemul in Argentina and 3 females, plus a fresh female carcass allowed examination of 7 huemul. Of these, 86% were diseased and clinical pathophysiognomy included lameness, affected hoof, exfoliation of 2-7 incisors, other cranial osteopathologies, and muscle atrophy. The parsimonious explanation for absent population recovery is high prevalence of osteopathology as evidenced earlier in carcasses, and now by these clinical cases. Areas currently used by huemul have reduced selenium bioavailability, very deficient soil levels, and overt selenium deficiency in local livestock and plants. These areas are known to result in primary iodine deficiency which is aggravated by selenium deficiency. The nexus to nutritional ecology of huemul likely is inaccessibility to most fertile lowlands and traditional winter ranges, elimination of migratory traditions, and concomitant elimination of source populations. Fil: Fluck, Werner Thomas. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. University Basel; Suiza Fil: Smith Flueck, Jo Anne M.. Universidad Nacional del Comahue; Argentina

The taxonomy of American deer has been established almost entirely on the basis of morphological data and without the use of explicit phylogenetic methods; hence, phylogenetic analyses including data for all of the currently recognized species, even if based on a single gene, might improve current understanding of their taxonomy. We tested the monophyly of the morphology-defined genera and species of New World deer (Odocoileini) with phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences. This is the first such test conducted using extensive geographic and taxonomic sampling. Our results do not support the monophyly of Mazama, Odocoileus, Pudu, M. americana, M. nemorivaga, Od. hemionus, and Od. virginianus. Mazama contains species that belong to other genera. We found a novel sister-taxon relationship between “Mazama” pandora and a clade formed by Od. hemionus columbianus and Od. h. sitkensis, and transfer pandora to Odocoileus. The clade formed by Od. h. columbianus and Od. h. sitkensis may represent a valid species, whereas the remaining subspecies of Od. hemionus appear closer to Od. virginianus. Pudu (Pudu) puda was not found sister to Pudu (Pudella) mephistophiles. If confirmed, this result will prompt the recognition of the monotypic Pudella as a distinct genus. We provide evidence for the existence of an undescribed species now confused with Mazama americana, and identify other instances of cryptic, taxonomically unrecognized species-level diversity among populations here regarded as Mazama temama, “Mazama” nemorivaga, and Hippocamelus antisensis. Noteworthy records that substantially extend the known distributions of M. temama and “M.” gouazoubira are provided, and we unveil a surprising ambiguity regarding the distribution of “M.” nemorivaga, as it is described in the literature. The study of deer of the tribe Odocoileini has been hampered by the paucity of information regarding voucher specimens and the provenance of sequences deposited in GenBank. We pinpoint priorities for future systematic research on the tribe Odocoileini.

A partir de datos etnográficos recolectados en la Cordillera Blanca (Ancash, Perú), este artículo analiza las creencias y prácticas locales en relación con el tarugo (Hippocamelus antisensis, Cervidae), conocido igualmente bajo el nombre de taruka. Este cérvido, que vive en las grandes altitudes al pie de los glaciares, está clasificado como “vulnerable” y protegido por ley. Ahora bien, en el pensamiento tradicional, pertenece a los ancestros míticos (por otro lado, espíritus tutelares de las montañas), los cuales lo consideran como su ganado más precioso. Este estatus permite comprender por qué la caza del tarugo, encontrándose bajo el control y la autorización de los ancestros, es percibida como particularmente difícil y peligrosa. Puesto que el tarugo no es un animal ordinario, su caza está sujeta a numerosos rituales y limitaciones. Este artículo muestra igualmente cómo este cérvido –en su calidad de metáfora del glaciar– es considerado como responsable de las avalanchas provocadas por su aliento de “bestia salvaje”. Así, el tarugo ocupa un lugar primordial en el imaginario de los habitantes de la Cordillera Blanca.

In the Chilean coastal Patagonia, fourteen wild deer huemul faecal pellet samples were collected and cultured forMycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis detection. Six samples were positive, but only one was able to show a molecular typesimilar to the most common strain reported for cattle in Chile., En el Parque Nacional Bernardo O’Higgins de la Patagonia chilena se recolectaron catorce muestras de heces dehuemul para detección de Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Seis de las muestras resultaron positivas, pero solo unamostró un patrón molecular similar al patrón más común de cepas aisladas de bovinos en Chile.

The narrow Andean-Patagonian temperate rainforest strip in the west of southern South America is inhabited by two endemic species of cervids, the southern pudu (Pudu puda) and the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), both cataloged as near threatened and threatened species, respectively. One of the possible causes of their declined number is the susceptibility to livestock diseases. Significant zooarchaeological records of both deer have been found throughout the Holocene from Patagonia. The present contribution reports the first paleoparasitological results obtained from coprolites of endemic deer from the archeological site “Cueva Parque Diana,” Neuquén Province, Argentina, and discusses the possible diseases found in ancient times. Thirty-four coprolites were fully processed, rehydrated, homogenized, sieved, subjected to spontaneous sedimentation, and examined by light microscopy. Thirty samples contained parasite remains. The presence of diverse parasitic diseases such as trematodioses, metastrongylosis, trichuriosis, strongylida gastroenteritis, dioctophymosis, and coccidiosis which could cause diseases in deer previous to the arrival of European livestock and the presence of zoonotic diseases in the hunters-gatherers and fishermen are discussed. Fil: Beltrame, Maria Ornela. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Departamento de Biología; Argentina Fil: Tietze, Eleonor. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Departamento de Biología; Argentina. Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Pérez, Alberto Enrique. Universidad Católica de Temuco; Chile Fil: Bellusci, Agustin. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Departamento de Biología; Argentina Fil: Sardella, Norma Haydee. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Departamento de Biología; Argentina

The taruka Hippocamelus antisensis, a species of deer categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, was thought to be locally extinct in the environs of La Paz, Bolivia. However, local people from Mecapaca municipality reported seeing tarukas at their former community establishment, which had been abandoned several years previously. After confirming the presence of taruka we conducted intensive surveys from which we estimated minimum abundance, and then calibrated relative abundance indices (faecal and track counts) to the abundance estimate. Using these calibrated indices we carried out a preliminary estimate of the total abundance of the species in the municipality of Mecapaca. We also carried out conservation education activities with teachers and students at local schools, which we discuss here in terms of the long-term conservation of this threatened species.

Concentrations of calcium, magnesium, copper, zinc, and selenium were measured in plasma from 11 huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) from Chilean Patagonia. Except for zinc and copper, concentrations of these minerals were similar to those of other deer species.

En base a la reconstrucción del viaje efectuado en 1898 por J. B. Hatcher y E. A. Colburn hacia la Meseta del lago Buenos Aires y sectores adyacentes (Santa Cruz, Argentina), se discute la procedencia geográfica de los holotipos de los roedores Eligmodontia morgani J. Allen, 1901 (Cricetidae) y Ctenomys colburni J. Allen, 1903 (Ctenomyidae). Para ambos taxones se restringen sus localidades típicas, cuya ubicación ha sido objeto de debate. Además, se refina información geográfica lograda por esta dupla de naturalistas para otros mamíferos patagónicos, en especial el ciervo Hippocamelus bisulcus. On the basis of a reconstruction of J. B. Hatcher y E. A. Colburn’s 1898 expedition to Patagonia’s Lake Buenos Aires region and intervening areas (Santa Cruz, Argentina), we discuss the geographic provenance of the holotypes of the rodents Eligmodontia morgani J. Allen, 1901 (Cricetidae) and Ctenomys colburni J. Allen, 1903 (Ctenomyidae). Type localities for both taxa have been the subject of debate, and new information allows us to restrict their location. Additionally, we provide geographic information about other mammals documented by them, most notably the Huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus). Fil: Christie, Miguel I.. Sociedad Naturalista Andino Patagonica; Argentina Fil: Pardiñas, Ulises Francisco J.. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico. Instituto de Diversidad y Evolución Austral; Argentina

There is no better approach in the study of social behavior of a species than recognizing individuals. For the similar looking animals as in the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), were we could only differentiate between sexes and ages, marking became a critical need. In a long-term study of the huemul at Torres del Paine National Park, Chile, we wanted to recognize individuals as young as fawns, hence we adopted the technique learned from Franklin and Johnson (1994) to trap fawns during the birthing season. Teams looked-up for females suspected to have given birth to find the location of the hidden fawn. Once the fawn was located we proceeded to trap and mark it. In this way 16 fawns were trapped, measured, and ear-tagged. These animals were key for a better understanding of several aspects of the ecology of the huemul at that park. Resumen Una de las mejores formas para el estudio del comportamiento social de una especie, es el reconocimiento de los individuos. Para los animales de aspecto similar, como en el huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), donde solo se puede diferenciar entre sexos y edades, el marcar individuos se convierte en una necesidad critica. En un estudio a largo plazo del huemul realizado en el Parque Nacional Torres del Paine, Magallanes, Chile, el reconocimiento de individuos tan jovenes como cervatillos resulto ser de suma importancia, por lo tanto, se adopto la tecnica aprendida de Franklin y Johnson (1994 ) para atrapar cervatillos durante la temporada de nacimientos. Equipos de investigadores buscaron y observaron hembras de las que se sospechaba haber parido, para asi lograr la ubicacion del cervatillo oculto. Una vez que se encontro el cervatillo se procedio a atraparlo, medirlo y marcarlo. De esta manera se atraparon, midieron y marcaron con auto-crotales a 16 cervatillos. Estos animales marcados fueron clave para una mejor comprension de varios aspectos de la ecologia del huemul en ese parque.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a zoonotic parasitic disease associated with Echinococcus granulosus. The parasite is maintained by domestic and wild canids as definitive hosts with several ungulate species as intermediate hosts in domestic and peridomestic transmission cycles. In Chile, CE is endemic, and the role of livestock and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) in the cycle and the accidental infection of humans are widely documented at rural sites. However, the role of wild herbivores in wild cycles or the potential transmission of CE from livestock is still unknown in Chile and the rest of South America. We used molecular techniques to describe CE infecting a Patagonian huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) in Cerro Castillo National Reserve (Aysen region, Chile). We make inferences about the risk of disease spillover from sympatric domestic and wild species. The DNA-based molecular analysis revealed that the huemul was infected with E. granulosus G1 genotype, sharing haplotypes with other G1 samples collected from sheep (Ovis aries) and cattle (Bos taurus) worldwide. Geographic overlap between sheep and huemul populations in the reserve likely facilitates parasite spillover into wild deer populations, with shepherd or stray dogs and wild foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus) potentially acting as bridging hosts between livestock and the endangered huemul. Further studies are warranted to understand the implications of E. granulosus for huemul conservation throughout the Chilean Patagonia.

Un ejemplar huemul adulto hembra (Hippocamelus bisculcus) fue capturado en el Parque Nacional Bernardo O’Higgins, el cual tenia gran parte de su cuerpo cubierto con lesiones melanicas. Despues de un analisis histologico de estas lesiones, fueron diagnosticadas como Fibroma, una patologia descrita como comun en ciervos del mundo, sin embargo, en el huemul, este articulo constituye el primer reporte.

Hippocamelus antisensis (d'Orbigny, 1834) is a cervid commonly called taruca or taruka and is 1 of 2 species in the genus Hippocamelus. It is a medium-sized, dimorphic ungulate with characteristic facial markings. It lives at high altitude along steep slopes composed of rocky areas with sparse vegetation in the central Andes. It is widely distributed but limited in population size, considered “Vulnerable” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, and is represented poorly in zoos. It is illegally hunted throughout its distribution, and is affected by anthropogenic activities.

Conservation interventions increasingly involve active management of relative species abundances, especially when taxa of conservation concern are threatened by complex food web interactions. Unfortunately, the complexity of such interspecific interactions means that well-meaning management interventions can have unexpected, sometimes detrimental, effects on the species they are intended to protect. Here we report that the abrupt removal of an abundant non-native prey species (domestic sheep) and the cessation of predator control, actions intended to protect huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus in the future Patagonia National Park, appear to have had negative effects on this Endangered ungulate. During and following the changes in predator–prey management, predation of huemul fawns and females older than 1 year by native culpeo foxes Lycalopex culpaeus and pumas Puma concolor increased 3- and 5-fold, respectively. Predictions from demographic models suggest that elevated mortality rates of female huemul older than 1 year will, on average, cause this population of huemul to decline. These results highlight risks of unintended consequences when aggressive management actions are taken to protect taxa embedded in complex food webs. They also suggest that careful consideration of both inter- and intra-trophic level effects among all species in a system is warranted before conservation interventions are undertaken.

Populations of generalist foragers may in fact be composed of individuals that select different prey. We monitored 9 pumas (Puma concolor) in Chilean Patagonia using Argos–global positioning system (Argos-GPS) technology for a mean of 9.33 months 6 5.66 SD. We investigated 694 areas where puma location data were spatially aggregated, called GPS clusters, at which we identified 433 kill sites and 6 acts of scavenging. Pumas as a population specialized upon guanacos (Lama guanicoe), whereas only 7 of 9 individual pumas specialized upon guanacos. One puma specialized upon domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and 1 upon European hares (Lepus europaeus) in terms of numbers of prey killed. Male and female pumas selected different distributions of prey and pumas exhibited prey selection at both the individual and population level. Three of 9 pumas exhibited selection when we compared individual prey use to prey availability within individual pumas’ home ranges. One puma selected endangered huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) and 2 selected sheep. When we compared individual prey use to prey use at the population level, 5 of 9 pumas differed from the population norm. Whereas pumas did not select huemul at the population level, 2 individuals did select huemul. Two individuals also selected domestic sheep, and the influence of these 2 pumas was substantial enough to result in a population-level effect. Our research highlights the need to determine whether pumas exhibit individual foraging variation throughout their range, the extrinsic factors associated with (and possibly influencing) such variation, and how pumas that select rare and less abundant species in multiprey systems impact recovering prey populations.

The conservation of threatened species poses many challenges but through cooperation and pooling of resources, individuals and organizations can work together to achieve better results. Here we describe our experience, working through a governmental and private alliance, studying one of the most threatened mammals in the Southern Cone. The huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus, one of two members of the Hippocamelus genus of South America, is endemic to Argentina and Chile and currently inhabits only a small fraction of its former range. Little is known about the huemul because it generally lives in remote areas with a harsh climate and rugged terrain. Using drive counts and fixed width transects over 5 consecutive years (2004–2008) we estimated density and abundance, and examined population changes and social structure, in three coastal huemul populations in the area of the Témpanos and Bernardo fjords of Bernardo O'Higgins National Park, Chile. Our results suggest that synergistic conservation actions, such as cattle removal and poaching control, can lead to the recovery of threatened huemul. The baseline information obtained from our surveys and the lessons learned through this governmental and private alliance will be useful for future monitoring of the huemul in the Patagonian fjords of Chile.

Apparent competition is an indirect interaction between 2 or more prey species through a shared predator, and it is increasingly recognized as a mechanism of the decline and extinction of many species. Through case studies, we evaluated the effectiveness of 4 management strategies for species affected by apparent competition: predator control, reduction in the abundances of alternate prey, simultaneous control of predators and alternate prey, and no active management of predators or alternate prey. Solely reducing predator abundances rapidly increased abundances of alternate and rare prey, but observed increases are likely short-lived due to fast increases in predator abundance following the cessation of control efforts. Substantial reductions of an abundant alternate prey resulted in increased predation on endangered huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) deer in Chilean Patagonia, which highlights potential risks associated with solely reducing alternate prey species. Simultaneous removal of predators and alternate prey increased survival of island foxes (Urocyon littoralis) in California (U.S.A.) above a threshold required for population recovery. In the absence of active management, populations of rare woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) continued to decline in British Columbia, Canada. On the basis of the cases we examined, we suggest the simultaneous control of predators and alternate prey is the management strategy most likely to increase abundances and probabilities of persistence of rare prey over the long term. Knowing the mechanisms driving changes in species' abundances before implementing any management intervention is critical. We suggest scientists can best contribute to the conservation of species affected by apparent competition by clearly communicating the biological and demographic forces at play to policy makers responsible for the implementation of proposed management actions.

Background: Anaplasma marginale is a well-known cattle pathogen of tropical and subtropical world regions. Even though, this obligate intracellular bacterium has been reported in other host species different than bovine, it has never been documented in Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater) or Hippocamelus antisense (taruca), which are two native endangered species. Methods: Samples from two sick wild animals: a Myrmecophaga tridactyla (blood) and a Hippocamelus antisense (blood and serum) were studied for the presence of A. marginale DNA through msp5 gene fragment amplification. Further characterization was done through MSP1a tandem repeats analysis and MLST scheme and the genetic relationship among previously characterized A. marginale sequences were studied by applying, eBURST algorithm and AMOVA analysis. Results: Anaplasma marginale DNA was identified in the Myrmecophaga tridactyla and Hippocamelus antisense samples. Through molecular markers, we identified an identical genotype in both animals that was not previously reported in bovine host. The analysis through eBURST and AMOVA revealed no differentiation between the taruca/ anteater isolate and the bovine group. Inst. de Biotecnología Fil: Guillemi, Eliana Carolina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Instituto de Biotecnología; Argentina Fil: De La Fourniere, Sofia. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Instituto de Biotecnología; Argentina Fil: Orozco, Maria Marcela. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Cs.exactas y Naturales. Departamento de Ecologia, Genetica y Evolucion. Laboratorio de Eco - Epidemiologia; Consejo Nacional de Invest. Científ.y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución de Buenos Aires; Argentina; Fil: Peña Martínez, Jorge. Conservation Land Trust; Argentina Fil: Correa, Elena. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales. Reserva Experimental Horco Molle; Argentina Fil: Fernández, Javier. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales. Reserva Experimental Horco Molle; Argentina Fil: Lopez Arias, Ludmila Sol. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Instituto de Biotecnología; Argentina Fil: Paoletta, Martina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Instituto de Biotecnología; Argentina Fil: Corona, Belkis. Centro Nacional de Sanidad Agropecuaria; Cuba Fil: Wilkowsky, Silvina Elizabeth. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Instituto de Biotecnología; Argentina Fil: Farber, Marisa Diana. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Instituto de Biotecnología; Argentina Fil: Pinarello, Valérie. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique. Contrôle des Maladies Animales Exotiques et Emergentes Centre; Francia

Tarucas (Hippocamelus antisensis) live in rocky areas in the Andes, from northern Peru to northern Argentina. Microhistological analyses on their feeding ecology during the rainy and dry seasons were done at a National Park and a Landscape Reserve. The diet was diverse and more than 50 species were identified from the feces. Grass species were most often detected as eaten by taruca during the rainy season comprising near 70% of the consumed fragments with 35 plant species identified as eaten then. In the dry season, around 50 species were identified as eaten by tarucas, mostly dicotyledonous. The main species consumed in both seasons wereWerneria nubigena,Poa gymnantha,Senecio comosus, andEphedra americana. The ecological density was an intermediate value compared to other observed values in Peru. This is the first study to find the importance of grasses for tarucas, selected when soft, during the rainy season. A possible overlap with domestic ungulates’ diets should be explored, helping the conservation of taruca and generating an adequate management of the species and the ecosystem. There is a change in the palatable offer of food items during the rainy season, when most of the Gramineae species are tender.

In a ten-year study of the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) population at Torres del Paine National Park in southern Patagonia, we covered a wide range of information regarding the ecology of this endanger deer. We determined the huemul social structure, social behavior, reproductive season, and associated movements throughout the year. Huemuls were observed in the park central area of Sector Grey. When animals were located, natural marks or scars, coloring of body and face, and antler characteristics were used to identify them. We also ear tagged sixteen fawns from 2002 to 2008. Behavioral information was collected from all members with focal observations. We found established and transient social groups. Among the established we found family groups, solo female, and solo male, and among the transient we found solo female, solo male, solo yearling, pair of yearlings, and mixed groups. Family groups were observed throughout the year since they remained in the same area. We observed the first mating of marked females at about 16 months of age. We were not able to determine male age of their first mating, since they left the study site as yearlings. Females gave birth from late October to mid-November. The home range varied from 269 to 336 ha for the established family group. Huemul movements were associated with seasons and reproduction cycles, which also implies group changes. During the rut, some transient solo males tried to move into home ranges of established family groups. During the birthing season, pregnant females remained alone for short periods of time, while yearlings were temporarily expelled from their natal group but remained within the home range, thus sometimes the three members of the group were seen alone. These critical periods increased antagonism among huemuls, generating changes in their group structure. Movements associated with huemul in the park consisted of movements within the home range, seasonal movements, dispersion of the yearlings, and movements during the reproductive period. Resumen Este es un estudio de la poblacion de huemules (Hippocamelus bisulcus) del Parque Nacional Torres del Paine, en el sur de la Patagonia, durante 10 anos, lo que nos permitio obtener un amplio rango de informacion de los aspectos socio ecologicos de este ciervo en peligro de extincion. Determinamos la estructura social, las interacciones sociales, etapa reproductiva, y los movimientos asociados a lo largo del ano. Los huemules fueron observados en un area central del Sector Grey. Una vez localizados los animales, estos fueron identificados usando marcas naturales, cicatrices, color del pelaje y caracteristicas de la cornamenta en los machos, ademas de aretes numerados en 16 cervatillos marcados entre el 2002 y el 2008. Se colecto informacion de comportamiento de los integrantes de los grupos, a traves de observaciones focales. Encontramos dos tipos de grupos, los grupos establecidos y los grupos transientes Entre los grupos establecidos encontramos grupos familiares, hembras solas y machos solos, en tanto que entre los grupos transientes encontramos hembras solas, machos solos, juveniles solos, juveniles en pares y grupos mixtos. Los grupos familiares permanecieron en la misma area durante todo el ano. El primer apareamiento en hembras marcadas fue a los 16 meses. Los cervatillos nacieron a partir de fines de Octubre hasta mediados de Noviembre. No pudimos determinar la edad del primer apareamiento de los machos, pues los marcados se fueron del area siendo juveniles. Las hembras prenadas permanecieron aisladas por cortos periodos de tiempo durante el nacimiento de cervatillos, en tanto que los juveniles fueron temporalmente expulsados de su grupo, permaneciendo en su rango de hogar, de modo que los tres integrantes del grupo se vieron solos. Estos periodos criticos aumentan el antagonismo entre los huemules, lo cual genera cambios en su estructura. Hubieron cuatro tipos de movimientos o traslados de los animales: dentro de los rangos de hogar, reproductivos, estacionales y de dispersion de los juveniles.

To assist with conservation of Endangered Patagonian Huemul Deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus), the Huemul Task Force (HTF) reassessed information on appendicular morphology, paleobiogeography, and historical distribution as potential factors in recovery efforts. Traditional claims of being a mountain specialist of the Andes were refuted by empirical evidence showing huemul morphology to coincide with other cervids rather than the commonly implied homology to rock-climbing ungulates. It thus supports historical evidence of huemul in treeless habitat and reaching the Atlantic coast, which cannot be dismissed as past erroneous observations. Instead, pre- and post-Columbian anthropogenic impacts resulted in huemul displacement from productive sites and in survival mainly in remote and marginal refuge areas. The process of range contraction was facilitated by easy hunting of huemul, energetic incentives from seasonal fat cycles and huemul concentrations, the change from hunting-gathering to a mobile equestrian economy, and colonization with livestock. However, areas used presently by huemul, as supposed mountain specialists, are also used by wild and domestic ungulates that clearly are not considered mountain specialists, whereas the only other Hippocamelus successfully uses areas homologous to tree-less Patagonia. Rigid application of modern habitat usage to infer past habitat use and ignoring historic extra-Andean accounts is unwarranted; these conclusions reached by the HTF indicate new opportunities for recovery efforts by considering morphological and historical evidence. For instance, reintroductions to other portions of the landscape used formerly by huemul, which tend to be more productive sites than those currently occupied by many huemul groups, would present a promising avenue.

One of the greatest challenges for conservation biology is providing solutions for endangered species in modern landscapes, usually with deficient biological information on how species respond to landscape disturbances. These limitations are severe in developing countries where the lack of resources restricts the potential for basic ecological research. One way in which this limitation has been mitigated is with the use of individual-based spatially explicit population models (SEPMs). We developed a SEPM for the endangered huemul deer ( Hippocamelus bisulcu s) of southern Chile. The goal was to project the population trajectories under three different development scenarios (present conditions, increased livestock density and hydroelectric dams) in southern Chile, identifying key demographic variables associated to landscape features. The model simulated weekly movements, age and general status of all individuals in the population and the landscape in which they lived during a 40-year period. Age-dependent and landscape-related mortality probabilities were applied. Four population sizes and three spatial aggregation patterns were used as initial conditions. Although the model was very sensitive to age-dependent mortality rate, individual landscape perception scale and initial population size and location, the general trend was that of a positive population growth. Livestock and dam scenarios had minimal impacts on population dynamics. Most simulations starting with 100 individuals resulted in extinctions and disaggregated initial location of individuals produced slow rates of population growth, suggesting the existence of a population viability threshold. Our results suggest that the huemul population in the Aysen region has the potential to recover only if limiting factors are kept under control and they highlight the urgency of conducting studies aimed at estimating total population size and distribution together with survival data to improve the conservation plans for this endangered species.

Considerable efforts have been invested in recent years to improve methods for both data collection and analyses required for population monitoring. Where historical or current estimates of population size are not adjusted for detection probabilities they may be too inaccurate to provide meaningful estimates of trends and thus monitoring methods need to be adapted. Here, we use data from the Endangered huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus to outline a framework to develop accurate robust estimates of detection probabilities that can be incorporated into new surveys in a cost-effective way and applied to existing survey data sets. In particular, by retroactively estimating detection probabilities for surveys of huemul, we show that current survey methods for huemul are inadequate to determine population trends reliably. Based on these results we propose a new monitoring method for the huemul and discuss the importance of estimating accuracies of historical survey data to ensure that changes in the abundance of the species reflect real population trends and are not an artefact of variation over time in the accuracy of survey data.

Conservation of huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), an endangered South American deer, is hindered by a lack of quantitative information on its population dynamics. We conducted a 3-year study in Chilean Patagonia to assess the dynamics of huemul by monitoring known individuals. We fitted 55 deer of all sex–age classes with either radiocollars, radio ear tags, or conventional ear tags, and identified 33 additional deer through natural marks. Kaplan–Meier estimates revealed that annual survival of adult females was high and stable (0.94 6 0.07 SD), but survival of female fawns was low and variable (0.13 6 0.18). Predation was the predominant cause of mortality for deer of all age classes. Fertility rates were lower (0.72 6 0.20) than in other cervids of similar size. Simulations of the finite rate of increase (l) suggest that the population is currently stable. Sensitivity analysis showed that any decrease in adult female survival would have drastic effects on l. Consequently, management should maintain high adult survival and improve recruitment. Continued monitoring of individuals is required to provide baseline data for comparison with other populations and to inform recovery strategies of small and fragmented populations. DOI: 10.1644/09-MAMM-A-047.1.

A recent review on exotic cervids concluded that deer introduced to Patagonia impacted habitat and native huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus. I evaluate these assertions and amend information about this South American case study. Categorizing deer along narrow characteristics may be too restrictive to allow accurate predictions about interactions. More effective is considering the magnitude of plasticity (behavioral, phenotypic, genetic). The dichotomy of native versus exotic deer masks situations where prevailing ecological conditions are far from ‘native’, such as absence of predators, and such results from artificial settings have limitations. Studies used to contrast effects on vegetation from exotic red deer (Cervus elaphus) versus native huemul did not analyze native deer and provided no data to support conclusions in the review. Huemul were concluded to have high trophic overlap with red deer whose diet, however, was determined in another habitat where the food item of supposed major overlap was absent, and suggesting that red deer might cause exploitation competition was not supported by cited data. There was no mention that huemul are foremost exposed to livestock rather than exotic deer. Concluding that exotic prey including red deer increase predator density resulting in increased predation of huemul (apparent competition), was not supported by cited studies. To the contrary, high-density puma (Puma concolor) could not prevent guanaco (Lama guanicoe) from increasing >13-fold, nor that huemul expanded into these sites. Not only were those studies opposite to conclusions in the review, but none had studied huemul nor predator population trends. Data from little known species like huemul should be used with reservations when aiming at generalizations.

Los programas de conservación de especies se apoyan fuertemente en estudios de genética poblacional. En el presente estudio, reportamos diversos análisis genéticopoblacionales en ocho especies de cérvidos neotropicales (Mazama americana, M. gouzaoubira, M. rufina, Odocoileus virginianus, Hippocamelus antisensis, Pudu mephistopholes, Ozotoceros bezoarticus y Blastoceros dichotomus) y, adicionalmente, en varias especies de cérvidos europeos y asiáticos (Cervus elaphus, C. nippon, Capreolus capreolus, C. pygargus and Dama dama). Una de esas especies europeas, la población de Cervus elaphus en Escocia, fue tomada como una población con un grado muy elevado de diversidad genética ya que proviene del cruce de diferentes grupos de ciervos rojos procedentes de diversas subespecies de la Europa continental. Desde una perspectiva de una diversidad genética depauperada, se tomó el nivel encontrado en una población de ciervos sika (Cervus nippon) en Escocia, que prácticamente no mostró variabilidad a nivel molecular. Respecto a esos dos casos que consideramos como de elevada y escasa variabilidad genética, encontramos que las poblaciones analizadas de Mazama americana, M. gouzaoubira y Odocoileus virginianus estuvieron cerca del límite máximo encontrado para el ciervo rojo escocés (H=0.64, 0.70 y 0.61, respectivamente), mientras que M. rufina mostró el más bajo grado de variabilidad genética de las especies neotropicales, cercano al extremo mínimo presentado por C. nippon. Algunas de las muestras de Mazama y de Odocoileus, tomadas a nivel macrogeográfico, mostraron un exceso de homocigotos debido, probablemente, a la existencia de efecto Wahlund (efecto de subdivisión). Ninguna de las especies analizadas parece haber atravesado un cuello de botella reciente.Genetic variability in Neotropical deer genera (Mammalia: Cervidae) according to DNA microsatellite loci. Species conservation programs are highly based on analyses of population genetics. We compared eight Neotropical Cervidae (Mazama americana, M. gouzaoubira, M. rufina, Odocoileus virginianus, Hippocamelus antisensis, Pudu mephistopholes, Ozotoceros bezoarticus and Blastoceros dichotomus) and some European and Asian Cervidae (Cervus elaphus, C. nippon, Capreolus capreolus, C. pygargus and Dama dama). The European species C. elaphus was our standard for a high degree of genetic variability: we used a Scottish population originated in the mix of diverse Western European subspecies. On the contrary, Cervus nippon (a population from Scotland with a founder effect) was our standard for a depauperated population. The M. americana, M. gouzaoubira and O. virginianus samples had high diversity values close to our C. elaphus population (H= 0.64, 0.70 and 0.61, respectively), while M. rufina was very low, close to C. nippon. Several sample sets of Mazama and Odocoileus yielded a homozygote excess, probably due to the Wahlund (subdivison) effect. There was no evidence of recent bottleneck events. Rev. Biol. Trop. 57 (3): 879-904. Epub 2009 September 30.